Древнегреческий ученый в сочинениях которого впервые появилось слово физика

Not to be confused with Physis.

Physics is the natural science that studies matter,[a] its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force.[2] Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, with its main goal being to understand how the universe behaves.[b][3][4][5] A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist.

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest.[6] Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right.[c] Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences[3] and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy.

Advances in physics often enable advances in new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons;[3] advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

History

The word «physics» comes from Ancient Greek: φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), romanized: physikḗ (epistḗmē), meaning «knowledge of nature».[8][9][10]

Ancient astronomy

Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. Early civilizations dating back before 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilisation, had a predictive knowledge and a basic awareness of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets, believed to represent gods, were often worshipped. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy, as the stars were found to traverse great circles across the sky,[6] which could not explain the positions of the planets.

According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy.[11] Egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies,[12] while Greek poet Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the Northern Hemisphere.[13]

Natural philosophy

Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during the Archaic period (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales rejected non-naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.[14] They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment;[15] for example, atomism was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was proposed by Leucippus and his pupil Democritus.[16]

Medieval European and Islamic

The Western Roman Empire fell in the fifth century, and this resulted in a decline in intellectual pursuits in the western part of Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from the barbarians, and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics.[17]

In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes’ works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest.

Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) drawing

Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965–c. 1040), Book of Optics Book I, [6.85], [6.86]. Book II, [3.80] describes his camera obscura experiments.[18]

In sixth-century Europe John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar, questioned Aristotle’s teaching of physics and noted its flaws. He introduced the theory of impetus. Aristotle’s physics was not scrutinized until Philoponus appeared; unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. On Aristotle’s physics Philoponus wrote:

But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one. And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other[19]

Philoponus’ criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as an inspiration for Galileo Galilei ten centuries later,[20] during the Scientific Revolution. Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works when arguing that Aristotelian physics was flawed.[21][22] In the 1300s Jean Buridan, a teacher in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris, developed the concept of impetus. It was a step toward the modern ideas of inertia and momentum.[23]

Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and a priori reasoning, developing early forms of the scientific method.

Although Aristotle’s principles of physics was criticized, it is important to identify his the evidence he based his views off of.  When thinking of the history of science and math, it is notable to acknowledge the contributions made by older scientists. Aristotle’s science was the backbone of the science we learn in schools today. Aristotle published many biological works including The Parts of Animals, in which he discusses both biological science and natural science as well. It is also integral to mention the role Aristotle had in the progression of physics and metaphysics and how his beliefs and findings are still being taught in science classes to this day. The explanations that Aristotle gives for his findings are also very simple. When thinking of the elements, Aristotle believed that each element (earth, fire, water, air) had its own natural place. Meaning that because of the density of these elements, they will revert back to their own specific place in the atmosphere.[24] So, because of their weights, fire would be at the very top, air right underneath fire, then water, then lastly earth. He also stated that when a small amount of one element enters the natural place of another, the less abundant element will automatically go into its own natural place. For example, if there is a fire on the ground, if you pay attention, the flames go straight up into the air as an attempt to go back into its natural place where it belongs. Aristotle called his metaphysics “first philosophy” and characterized it as the study of “being as being”.[25] Aristotle defined the paradigm of motion as a being or entity encompassing different areas in the same body. [25]Meaning that if a person is at a certain location (A) they can move to a new location (B) and still take up the same amount of space. This is involved with Aristotle’s belief that motion is a continuum. In terms of matter, Aristotle believed that the change in category (ex. place) and quality (ex. color) of an object is defined as “alteration”. But, a change in substance is a change in matter. This is also very close to our idea of matter today.

He also devised his own laws of motion that include 1) heavier objects will fall faster, the speed being proportional to the weight and 2) the speed of the object that is falling depends inversely on the density object it is falling through (ex. density of air).[26] He also stated that, when it comes to violent motion (motion of an object when a force is applied to it by a second object) that the speed that object moves, will only be as fast or strong as the measure of force applied to it.[26] This is also seen in the rules of velocity and force that is taught in physics classes today. These rules are not necessarily what we see in our physics today but, they are very similar. It is evident that these rules were the backbone for other scientists to come revise and edit his beliefs.

The basic way a pinhole camera works

The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir), written by Ibn al-Haytham, in which he conclusively disproved the ancient Greek idea about vision and came up with a new theory. In the book, he presented a study of the phenomenon of the camera obscura (his thousand-year-old version of the pinhole camera) and delved further into the way the eye itself works. Using dissections and the knowledge of previous scholars, he was able to begin to explain how light enters the eye. He asserted that the light ray is focused, but the actual explanation of how light projected to the back of the eye had to wait until 1604. His Treatise on Light explained the camera obscura, hundreds of years before the modern development of photography.[27]

The seven-volume Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manathir) hugely influenced thinking across disciplines from the theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more than 600 years. Many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haytham’s Optics ranks alongside that of Newton’s work of the same title, published 700 years later.

The translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build devices that replicated those Ibn al-Haytham had built and understand the way light works. From this, important inventions such as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras were developed.

Classical

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics.

Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics.[28][page needed]

Major developments in this period include the replacement of the geocentric model of the Solar System with the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies (determined by Kepler between 1609 and 1619), Galileo’s pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and Isaac Newton’s discovery and unification of the laws of motion and universal gravitation (that would come to bear his name).[29] Newton also developed calculus,[d] the mathematical study of continuous change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.[30]

The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased.[31] The laws comprising classical physics remain very widely used for objects on everyday scales travelling at non-relativistic speeds, since they provide a very close approximation in such situations, and theories such as quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity simplify to their classical equivalents at such scales. Inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century.

Modern

Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light depends on the motion of the observer, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism. This discrepancy was corrected by Einstein’s theory of special relativity, which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light.[32] Black-body radiation provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency. This, along with the photoelectric effect and a complete theory predicting discrete energy levels of electron orbitals, led to the theory of quantum mechanics improving on classical physics at very small scales.[33]

Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac.[33] From this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived.[34] Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012,[35] all fundamental particles predicted by the standard model, and no others, appear to exist; however, physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such as supersymmetry, is an active area of research.[36] Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups.

Philosophy

In many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales’ first attempt to characterize matter, to Democritus’ deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle’s book Physics (an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view), various Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Physics was known as natural philosophy until the late 18th century.[e]

By the 19th century, physics was realized as a discipline distinct from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science and its «scientific method» to advance our knowledge of the physical world.[38] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[39]

The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[40]

Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism,[41] and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on quantum mechanics.[42][43] The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[44] a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality.[45] Hawking referred to himself as an «unashamed reductionist» and took issue with Penrose’s views.[46]

Core theories

Though physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at a speed much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research today. Chaos theory, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics, was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Newton (1642–1727).

These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.

Classical

Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received.[47] Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing,[48] and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.[49]

Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.

Modern

Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics study matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified. The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsensical notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.[50]

The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with motion in the absence of gravitational fields and the general theory of relativity with motion and its connection with gravitation. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in many areas of modern physics.[51]

Fundamental concepts in modern physics

  • Causality
  • Covariance
  • Action
  • Physical field
  • Symmetry
  • Physical interaction
  • Statistical ensemble
  • Quantum
  • Wave
  • Particle

Difference

The basic domains of physics

While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability.

Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. Einstein contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. Planck, Schrödinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.

Relation to other fields

Mathematics and ontology are used in physics. Physics is used in chemistry and cosmology.

Prerequisites

Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by Pythagoras,[52] Plato,[53] Galileo,[54] and Newton.

Physics uses mathematics[55] to organise and formulate experimental results. From those results, precise or estimated solutions are obtained, or quantitative results, from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical data, with their units of measure and estimates of the errors in the measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like computation have made computational physics an active area of research.

The distinction between mathematics and physics is clear-cut, but not always obvious, especially in mathematical physics.

Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data.

The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical.[56] The problems in this field start with a «mathematical model of a physical situation» (system) and a «mathematical description of a physical law» that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for.[clarification needed]

Pure physics is a branch of fundamental science (also called basic science). Physics is also called «the fundamental science» because all branches of natural science like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics.[57] Similarly, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and reactions of matter (chemistry’s focus on the molecular and atomic scale distinguishes it from physics). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy, mass, and charge. Physics is applied in industries like engineering and medicine.

Application and influence

Classical physics implemented in an acoustic engineering model of sound reflecting from an acoustic diffuser

Applied physics is a general term for physics research, which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem.

The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics.

Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations.

With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the earth, one can reasonably model earth’s mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing one to extrapolate forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering that drastically speed up the development of a new technology.

But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of econophysics and sociophysics).

Research

Scientific method

Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related experiments and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of the theory.[58]

A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton’s law of universal gravitation.[59]

Theory and experiment

Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they strongly affect and depend upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modelling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment).[60]

Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory.[61]

Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way.[f] Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues,[g] such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories; they then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions.

Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists.[62]

Scope and aims

Physics involves modeling the natural world with theory, usually quantitative. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the mathematics of calculus to explain its behavior: the purview of the branch of physics known as mechanics.

Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the «fundamental science».[57] Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.

For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two.[63] This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force—electromagnetism. This process of «unifying» forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interaction. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (theory of everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current research below for more information).[64]

Research fields

Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach.[65]

Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialised, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. «Universalists» such as Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[h]

The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table.

Field Subfields Major theories Concepts
Nuclear and particle physics Nuclear physics, Nuclear astrophysics, Particle physics, Astroparticle physics, Particle physics phenomenology Standard Model, Quantum field theory, Quantum electrodynamics, Quantum chromodynamics, Electroweak theory, Effective field theory, Lattice field theory, Gauge theory, Supersymmetry, Grand Unified Theory, Superstring theory, M-theory, AdS/CFT correspondence Fundamental interaction (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak, strong), Elementary particle, Spin, Antimatter, Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Neutrino oscillation, Seesaw mechanism, Brane, String, Quantum gravity, Theory of everything, Vacuum energy
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Atomic physics, Molecular physics, Atomic and molecular astrophysics, Chemical physics, Optics, Photonics Quantum optics, Quantum chemistry, Quantum information science Photon, Atom, Molecule, Diffraction, Electromagnetic radiation, Laser, Polarization (waves), Spectral line, Casimir effect
Condensed matter physics Solid-state physics, High-pressure physics, Low-temperature physics, Surface physics, Nanoscale and mesoscopic physics, Polymer physics BCS theory, Bloch’s theorem, Density functional theory, Fermi gas, Fermi liquid theory, Many-body theory, Statistical mechanics Phases (gas, liquid, solid), Bose–Einstein condensate, Electrical conduction, Phonon, Magnetism, Self-organization, Semiconductor, superconductor, superfluidity, Spin,
Astrophysics Astronomy, Astrometry, Cosmology, Gravitation physics, High-energy astrophysics, Planetary astrophysics, Plasma physics, Solar physics, Space physics, Stellar astrophysics Big Bang, Cosmic inflation, General relativity, Newton’s law of universal gravitation, Lambda-CDM model, Magnetohydrodynamics Black hole, Cosmic background radiation, Cosmic string, Cosmos, Dark energy, Dark matter, Galaxy, Gravity, Gravitational radiation, Gravitational singularity, Planet, Solar System, Star, Supernova, Universe
Applied physics Accelerator physics, Acoustics, Agrophysics, Atmospheric physics, Biophysics, Chemical physics, Communication physics, Econophysics, Engineering physics, Fluid dynamics, Geophysics, Laser physics, Materials physics, Medical physics, Nanotechnology, Optics, Optoelectronics, Photonics, Photovoltaics, Physical chemistry, Physical oceanography, Physics of computation, Plasma physics, Solid-state devices, Quantum chemistry, Quantum electronics, Quantum information science, Vehicle dynamics

Nuclear and particle

Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them.[66] In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators,[67] detectors,[68] and computer programs[69] necessary for this research. The field is also called «high-energy physics» because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.[70]

Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model.[71] The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces.[71] Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively).[72] The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson.[71] In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson,[73] an integral part of the Higgs mechanism.

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.

Atomic, molecular, and optical

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter–matter and light–matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).

Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions,[74][75][76] low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics.

Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.

Condensed matter

Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.[77][78] In particular, it is concerned with the «condensed» phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.[79]

The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms.[80] More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid[81] and the Bose–Einstein condensate[82] found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials,[83] and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.[84]

Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields.[85] The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967.[86] In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.[85] Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.[79]

Astrophysics

Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.[87]

The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth’s atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.

Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble’s discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.

The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein’s general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy, and dark matter.

Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or clarify existing models of the universe.[88][89] In particular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter is possible over the next several years.[90] Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is composed of weakly interacting massive particles, complementing similar experiments with the Large Hadron Collider and other underground detectors.

IBEX is already yielding new astrophysical discoveries: «No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon» along the termination shock of the solar wind, «but everyone agrees that it means the textbook picture of the heliosphere—in which the Solar System’s enveloping pocket filled with the solar wind’s charged particles is plowing through the onrushing ‘galactic wind’ of the interstellar medium in the shape of a comet—is wrong.»[91]

Current research

Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts.

In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity.[92] Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.[79][93]

In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and dark energy is also currently ongoing.[94]

Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity,[95] chaos,[96] or turbulence[97] are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.[i][98]

These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb said:[99]

I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.

See also

  • List of important publications in physics
  • List of physicists
  • Lists of physics equations
  • Relationship between mathematics and physics
  • Earth science
  • Neurophysics
  • Psychophysics
  • Science tourism

Notes

  1. ^ At the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept.[1]
  2. ^ The term «universe» is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term «universe» may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
  3. ^ Francis Bacon’s 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.[7]
  4. ^ Calculus was independently developed at around the same time by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; while Leibniz was the first to publish his work and develop much of the notation used for calculus today, Newton was the first to develop calculus and apply it to physical problems. See also Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
  5. ^ Noll notes that some universities still use this title.[37]
  6. ^ See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Ørsted.
  7. ^ Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth-century physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach’s critique of Ludwig Boltzmann’s formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical.
  8. ^ Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for arXiv.org
  9. ^ See the work of Ilya Prigogine, on ‘systems far from equilibrium’, and others.

References

  1. ^ Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1963, p. I-2 «If, in some cataclysm, all [] scientific knowledge were to be destroyed [save] one sentence […] what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is […] that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another …»
  2. ^ Maxwell 1878, p. 9 «Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.»
  3. ^ a b c Young & Freedman 2014, p. 1 «Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (…) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves.»
  4. ^ Young & Freedman 2014, p. 2 «Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena.»
  5. ^ Holzner 2006, p. 7 «Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.»
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    Simp. — His language would seem to indicate that he had tried the experiment, because he says: We see the heavier; now the word see shows that he had made the experiment.
    Sagr. — But I, Simplicio, who have made the test can assure[107] you that a cannon ball weighing one or two hundred pounds, or even more, will not reach the ground by as much as a span ahead of a musket ball weighing only half a pound, provided both are dropped from a height of 200 cubits.
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External links

  • Physics at Quanta Magazine
  • Usenet Physics FAQ – FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
  • Website of the Nobel Prize in physics – Award for outstanding contributions to the subject
  • World of Physics – Online encyclopedic dictionary of physics
  • Nature Physics – Academic journal
  • Physics – Online magazine by the American Physical Society
  • Physics/Publications at Curlie – Directory of physics related media
  • The Vega Science Trust – Science videos, including physics
  • HyperPhysics website – Physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
  • Physics at MIT OpenCourseWare – Online course material from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
  • The Feynman Lectures on Physics

Not to be confused with Physis.

Physics is the natural science that studies matter,[a] its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force.[2] Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, with its main goal being to understand how the universe behaves.[b][3][4][5] A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist.

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest.[6] Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right.[c] Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences[3] and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy.

Advances in physics often enable advances in new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons;[3] advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

History

The word «physics» comes from Ancient Greek: φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), romanized: physikḗ (epistḗmē), meaning «knowledge of nature».[8][9][10]

Ancient astronomy

Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. Early civilizations dating back before 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilisation, had a predictive knowledge and a basic awareness of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets, believed to represent gods, were often worshipped. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy, as the stars were found to traverse great circles across the sky,[6] which could not explain the positions of the planets.

According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy.[11] Egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies,[12] while Greek poet Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the Northern Hemisphere.[13]

Natural philosophy

Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during the Archaic period (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales rejected non-naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause.[14] They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment;[15] for example, atomism was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was proposed by Leucippus and his pupil Democritus.[16]

Medieval European and Islamic

The Western Roman Empire fell in the fifth century, and this resulted in a decline in intellectual pursuits in the western part of Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from the barbarians, and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics.[17]

In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes’ works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest.

Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) drawing

Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965–c. 1040), Book of Optics Book I, [6.85], [6.86]. Book II, [3.80] describes his camera obscura experiments.[18]

In sixth-century Europe John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar, questioned Aristotle’s teaching of physics and noted its flaws. He introduced the theory of impetus. Aristotle’s physics was not scrutinized until Philoponus appeared; unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. On Aristotle’s physics Philoponus wrote:

But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one. And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other[19]

Philoponus’ criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as an inspiration for Galileo Galilei ten centuries later,[20] during the Scientific Revolution. Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works when arguing that Aristotelian physics was flawed.[21][22] In the 1300s Jean Buridan, a teacher in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris, developed the concept of impetus. It was a step toward the modern ideas of inertia and momentum.[23]

Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and a priori reasoning, developing early forms of the scientific method.

Although Aristotle’s principles of physics was criticized, it is important to identify his the evidence he based his views off of.  When thinking of the history of science and math, it is notable to acknowledge the contributions made by older scientists. Aristotle’s science was the backbone of the science we learn in schools today. Aristotle published many biological works including The Parts of Animals, in which he discusses both biological science and natural science as well. It is also integral to mention the role Aristotle had in the progression of physics and metaphysics and how his beliefs and findings are still being taught in science classes to this day. The explanations that Aristotle gives for his findings are also very simple. When thinking of the elements, Aristotle believed that each element (earth, fire, water, air) had its own natural place. Meaning that because of the density of these elements, they will revert back to their own specific place in the atmosphere.[24] So, because of their weights, fire would be at the very top, air right underneath fire, then water, then lastly earth. He also stated that when a small amount of one element enters the natural place of another, the less abundant element will automatically go into its own natural place. For example, if there is a fire on the ground, if you pay attention, the flames go straight up into the air as an attempt to go back into its natural place where it belongs. Aristotle called his metaphysics “first philosophy” and characterized it as the study of “being as being”.[25] Aristotle defined the paradigm of motion as a being or entity encompassing different areas in the same body. [25]Meaning that if a person is at a certain location (A) they can move to a new location (B) and still take up the same amount of space. This is involved with Aristotle’s belief that motion is a continuum. In terms of matter, Aristotle believed that the change in category (ex. place) and quality (ex. color) of an object is defined as “alteration”. But, a change in substance is a change in matter. This is also very close to our idea of matter today.

He also devised his own laws of motion that include 1) heavier objects will fall faster, the speed being proportional to the weight and 2) the speed of the object that is falling depends inversely on the density object it is falling through (ex. density of air).[26] He also stated that, when it comes to violent motion (motion of an object when a force is applied to it by a second object) that the speed that object moves, will only be as fast or strong as the measure of force applied to it.[26] This is also seen in the rules of velocity and force that is taught in physics classes today. These rules are not necessarily what we see in our physics today but, they are very similar. It is evident that these rules were the backbone for other scientists to come revise and edit his beliefs.

The basic way a pinhole camera works

The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir), written by Ibn al-Haytham, in which he conclusively disproved the ancient Greek idea about vision and came up with a new theory. In the book, he presented a study of the phenomenon of the camera obscura (his thousand-year-old version of the pinhole camera) and delved further into the way the eye itself works. Using dissections and the knowledge of previous scholars, he was able to begin to explain how light enters the eye. He asserted that the light ray is focused, but the actual explanation of how light projected to the back of the eye had to wait until 1604. His Treatise on Light explained the camera obscura, hundreds of years before the modern development of photography.[27]

The seven-volume Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manathir) hugely influenced thinking across disciplines from the theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more than 600 years. Many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haytham’s Optics ranks alongside that of Newton’s work of the same title, published 700 years later.

The translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build devices that replicated those Ibn al-Haytham had built and understand the way light works. From this, important inventions such as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras were developed.

Classical

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics.

Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics.[28][page needed]

Major developments in this period include the replacement of the geocentric model of the Solar System with the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies (determined by Kepler between 1609 and 1619), Galileo’s pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and Isaac Newton’s discovery and unification of the laws of motion and universal gravitation (that would come to bear his name).[29] Newton also developed calculus,[d] the mathematical study of continuous change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.[30]

The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased.[31] The laws comprising classical physics remain very widely used for objects on everyday scales travelling at non-relativistic speeds, since they provide a very close approximation in such situations, and theories such as quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity simplify to their classical equivalents at such scales. Inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century.

Modern

Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light depends on the motion of the observer, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism. This discrepancy was corrected by Einstein’s theory of special relativity, which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light.[32] Black-body radiation provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency. This, along with the photoelectric effect and a complete theory predicting discrete energy levels of electron orbitals, led to the theory of quantum mechanics improving on classical physics at very small scales.[33]

Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac.[33] From this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived.[34] Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012,[35] all fundamental particles predicted by the standard model, and no others, appear to exist; however, physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such as supersymmetry, is an active area of research.[36] Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups.

Philosophy

In many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales’ first attempt to characterize matter, to Democritus’ deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle’s book Physics (an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view), various Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Physics was known as natural philosophy until the late 18th century.[e]

By the 19th century, physics was realized as a discipline distinct from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science and its «scientific method» to advance our knowledge of the physical world.[38] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[39]

The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers but has also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[40]

Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism,[41] and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on quantum mechanics.[42][43] The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[44] a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality.[45] Hawking referred to himself as an «unashamed reductionist» and took issue with Penrose’s views.[46]

Core theories

Though physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at a speed much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research today. Chaos theory, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics, was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Newton (1642–1727).

These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.

Classical

Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received.[47] Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing,[48] and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.[49]

Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.

Modern

Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics study matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified. The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsensical notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.[50]

The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with motion in the absence of gravitational fields and the general theory of relativity with motion and its connection with gravitation. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in many areas of modern physics.[51]

Fundamental concepts in modern physics

  • Causality
  • Covariance
  • Action
  • Physical field
  • Symmetry
  • Physical interaction
  • Statistical ensemble
  • Quantum
  • Wave
  • Particle

Difference

The basic domains of physics

While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability.

Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. Einstein contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light. Planck, Schrödinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.

Relation to other fields

Mathematics and ontology are used in physics. Physics is used in chemistry and cosmology.

Prerequisites

Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by Pythagoras,[52] Plato,[53] Galileo,[54] and Newton.

Physics uses mathematics[55] to organise and formulate experimental results. From those results, precise or estimated solutions are obtained, or quantitative results, from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical data, with their units of measure and estimates of the errors in the measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like computation have made computational physics an active area of research.

The distinction between mathematics and physics is clear-cut, but not always obvious, especially in mathematical physics.

Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data.

The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical.[56] The problems in this field start with a «mathematical model of a physical situation» (system) and a «mathematical description of a physical law» that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for.[clarification needed]

Pure physics is a branch of fundamental science (also called basic science). Physics is also called «the fundamental science» because all branches of natural science like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics.[57] Similarly, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and reactions of matter (chemistry’s focus on the molecular and atomic scale distinguishes it from physics). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy, mass, and charge. Physics is applied in industries like engineering and medicine.

Application and influence

Classical physics implemented in an acoustic engineering model of sound reflecting from an acoustic diffuser

Applied physics is a general term for physics research, which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem.

The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics.

Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations.

With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the earth, one can reasonably model earth’s mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing one to extrapolate forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering that drastically speed up the development of a new technology.

But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of econophysics and sociophysics).

Research

Scientific method

Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related experiments and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of the theory.[58]

A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton’s law of universal gravitation.[59]

Theory and experiment

Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they strongly affect and depend upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modelling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment).[60]

Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory.[61]

Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way.[f] Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues,[g] such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories; they then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions.

Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists.[62]

Scope and aims

Physics involves modeling the natural world with theory, usually quantitative. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the mathematics of calculus to explain its behavior: the purview of the branch of physics known as mechanics.

Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the «fundamental science».[57] Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.

For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two.[63] This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force—electromagnetism. This process of «unifying» forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interaction. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (theory of everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current research below for more information).[64]

Research fields

Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach.[65]

Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialised, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. «Universalists» such as Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[h]

The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table.

Field Subfields Major theories Concepts
Nuclear and particle physics Nuclear physics, Nuclear astrophysics, Particle physics, Astroparticle physics, Particle physics phenomenology Standard Model, Quantum field theory, Quantum electrodynamics, Quantum chromodynamics, Electroweak theory, Effective field theory, Lattice field theory, Gauge theory, Supersymmetry, Grand Unified Theory, Superstring theory, M-theory, AdS/CFT correspondence Fundamental interaction (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak, strong), Elementary particle, Spin, Antimatter, Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Neutrino oscillation, Seesaw mechanism, Brane, String, Quantum gravity, Theory of everything, Vacuum energy
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Atomic physics, Molecular physics, Atomic and molecular astrophysics, Chemical physics, Optics, Photonics Quantum optics, Quantum chemistry, Quantum information science Photon, Atom, Molecule, Diffraction, Electromagnetic radiation, Laser, Polarization (waves), Spectral line, Casimir effect
Condensed matter physics Solid-state physics, High-pressure physics, Low-temperature physics, Surface physics, Nanoscale and mesoscopic physics, Polymer physics BCS theory, Bloch’s theorem, Density functional theory, Fermi gas, Fermi liquid theory, Many-body theory, Statistical mechanics Phases (gas, liquid, solid), Bose–Einstein condensate, Electrical conduction, Phonon, Magnetism, Self-organization, Semiconductor, superconductor, superfluidity, Spin,
Astrophysics Astronomy, Astrometry, Cosmology, Gravitation physics, High-energy astrophysics, Planetary astrophysics, Plasma physics, Solar physics, Space physics, Stellar astrophysics Big Bang, Cosmic inflation, General relativity, Newton’s law of universal gravitation, Lambda-CDM model, Magnetohydrodynamics Black hole, Cosmic background radiation, Cosmic string, Cosmos, Dark energy, Dark matter, Galaxy, Gravity, Gravitational radiation, Gravitational singularity, Planet, Solar System, Star, Supernova, Universe
Applied physics Accelerator physics, Acoustics, Agrophysics, Atmospheric physics, Biophysics, Chemical physics, Communication physics, Econophysics, Engineering physics, Fluid dynamics, Geophysics, Laser physics, Materials physics, Medical physics, Nanotechnology, Optics, Optoelectronics, Photonics, Photovoltaics, Physical chemistry, Physical oceanography, Physics of computation, Plasma physics, Solid-state devices, Quantum chemistry, Quantum electronics, Quantum information science, Vehicle dynamics

Nuclear and particle

Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them.[66] In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators,[67] detectors,[68] and computer programs[69] necessary for this research. The field is also called «high-energy physics» because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.[70]

Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model.[71] The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces.[71] Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively).[72] The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson.[71] In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson,[73] an integral part of the Higgs mechanism.

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.

Atomic, molecular, and optical

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter–matter and light–matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).

Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions,[74][75][76] low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics.

Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.

Condensed matter

Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.[77][78] In particular, it is concerned with the «condensed» phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.[79]

The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms.[80] More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid[81] and the Bose–Einstein condensate[82] found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials,[83] and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.[84]

Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields.[85] The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967.[86] In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.[85] Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.[79]

Astrophysics

Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.[87]

The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth’s atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.

Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble’s discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.

The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein’s general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy, and dark matter.

Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from new data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or clarify existing models of the universe.[88][89] In particular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surrounding dark matter is possible over the next several years.[90] Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is composed of weakly interacting massive particles, complementing similar experiments with the Large Hadron Collider and other underground detectors.

IBEX is already yielding new astrophysical discoveries: «No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon» along the termination shock of the solar wind, «but everyone agrees that it means the textbook picture of the heliosphere—in which the Solar System’s enveloping pocket filled with the solar wind’s charged particles is plowing through the onrushing ‘galactic wind’ of the interstellar medium in the shape of a comet—is wrong.»[91]

Current research

Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts.

In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity.[92] Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.[79][93]

In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and dark energy is also currently ongoing.[94]

Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity,[95] chaos,[96] or turbulence[97] are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.[i][98]

These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb said:[99]

I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.

See also

  • List of important publications in physics
  • List of physicists
  • Lists of physics equations
  • Relationship between mathematics and physics
  • Earth science
  • Neurophysics
  • Psychophysics
  • Science tourism

Notes

  1. ^ At the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept.[1]
  2. ^ The term «universe» is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term «universe» may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
  3. ^ Francis Bacon’s 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.[7]
  4. ^ Calculus was independently developed at around the same time by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; while Leibniz was the first to publish his work and develop much of the notation used for calculus today, Newton was the first to develop calculus and apply it to physical problems. See also Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
  5. ^ Noll notes that some universities still use this title.[37]
  6. ^ See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Ørsted.
  7. ^ Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth-century physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach’s critique of Ludwig Boltzmann’s formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no longer deemed hypothetical.
  8. ^ Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said for arXiv.org
  9. ^ See the work of Ilya Prigogine, on ‘systems far from equilibrium’, and others.

References

  1. ^ Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1963, p. I-2 «If, in some cataclysm, all [] scientific knowledge were to be destroyed [save] one sentence […] what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is […] that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another …»
  2. ^ Maxwell 1878, p. 9 «Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.»
  3. ^ a b c Young & Freedman 2014, p. 1 «Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (…) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves.»
  4. ^ Young & Freedman 2014, p. 2 «Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena.»
  5. ^ Holzner 2006, p. 7 «Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.»
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    Simp. — His language would seem to indicate that he had tried the experiment, because he says: We see the heavier; now the word see shows that he had made the experiment.
    Sagr. — But I, Simplicio, who have made the test can assure[107] you that a cannon ball weighing one or two hundred pounds, or even more, will not reach the ground by as much as a span ahead of a musket ball weighing only half a pound, provided both are dropped from a height of 200 cubits.
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External links

  • Physics at Quanta Magazine
  • Usenet Physics FAQ – FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
  • Website of the Nobel Prize in physics – Award for outstanding contributions to the subject
  • World of Physics – Online encyclopedic dictionary of physics
  • Nature Physics – Academic journal
  • Physics – Online magazine by the American Physical Society
  • Physics/Publications at Curlie – Directory of physics related media
  • The Vega Science Trust – Science videos, including physics
  • HyperPhysics website – Physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
  • Physics at MIT OpenCourseWare – Online course material from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
  • The Feynman Lectures on Physics

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    Презентацию составил учитель физики
    Шарков Олег Михайлович
    МАОУ СШ п.Угловка, Окуловского района,Новгородской области,
    2018г.
    КРОССВОРД по физике
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  • Ключевое слово:Фкииаз

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  • МОЛОДЦЫ!

  • Источники:
Учебник «Физика 7»
    С.В.Громов, Н.А.Родина
http://stranamaster...

    20 слайд

    Источники:

    Учебник «Физика 7»
    С.В.Громов, Н.А.Родина
    http://stranamasterov.ru/ — картинки

Геннадий Горелик
«Троицкий вариант — Наука» №4(323), 23 февраля 2021 года

Три загадки

Геннадий Горелик («Троицкий вариант» №10, 2018)

Крупнейшие загадки мировой истории науки — это три подъема научной активности (и два угасания), отчетливо разделенные во времени и пространстве: греко-римская Античность, Золотой век ислама и Новое время Запада. Загадки эти не имеют общепринятого решения. Историка особенно поражает контраст малого социального масштаба и огромного значения взлетов науки. Значение, правда, стало очевидным лишь в XX веке, который, по мнению Андрея Сахарова (и не только его), заслужил титул «век науки». А малость социального масштаба каждого взлета ясна всякому, кто захочет пересчитать его главных участников: хватит пальцев.

О загадке рождения современной науки в Новое время я уже рассказывал на страницах «ТрВ-Наука». Кратко напомню. Этот — третий — подъем отличался от предыдущих не только мощью, но и загадочным евроцентризмом. До Коперника европейцы успешно осваивали достижения Золотого века ислама, который, в свою очередь, успешно освоил античное наследие и новации Востока. Но современная наука, возникнув в Европе, лишь там и развивалась вплоть до XX века. Культуры трех великих цивилизаций Востока — исламской, индийской и китайской, с их научно-техническими традициями, — оказались невосприимчивы к новой европейской науке, хотя возможностей стало гораздо больше благодаря книгопечатанию и расширению контактов. Внутри Европы были свои загадочные различия: к концу XVII века лидерство в науке перешло к исследователям протестантского происхождения, и в XVIII веке Россия, без собственных научных традиций и при общекультурной отсталости, сравнительно легко включилась в мировую науку.

Эту «еврозагадку» острее других сформулировал выдающийся британский биохимик, историк и синолог Джозеф Нидэм (Joseph Needham, 1900–1995):

Почему современная наука, с ее ролью в создании передовой техники, возникла лишь на Западе во времена Галилея, но не развилась в Китае, где до XV века знания о природе применялись к практическим нуждам намного эффективней, чем на Западе?1

Чтобы ответить исторически на этот эвристический вопрос, его можно и нужно уточнить, сузив к физике и расширив во времени и пространстве:

Что мешало античным и средневековым ученым сделать следующий, после Архимеда, шаг в развитии науки, а ученым исламского мира, Индии и Китая — включиться в развитие физики после Галилея и вплоть до XX века?

Ответ на этот вопрос можно видеть в уникальном отличии европейских культур, начиная с XVI века, когда в результате изобретения книгопечатания и Реформации резко возросла доступность главного общего текста Европы. И соответственно, возросла роль основного морального постулата, исторически порожденного библейским мировосприятием. Речь идет о моральном самовосприятии человека, об ответе на вопрос «Кто я?», в формулировке Раскольникова-Достоевского: «Тварь дрожащая или человек, имеющий неотъемлемое право на свободу?» Библейский антропоцентризм обеспечил фундаментальный познавательный оптимизм, необходимый для современной науки2.

Суть второй загадки — не столько подъем, сколько угасание. В Золотой век ислама (VIII–XIII века) языком передовой науки и философии стал арабский, оставивший нам слова алгебра, алгоритм, химия, цифра и другие; но к XIII веку что-то пошло не так, и научная мысль заглохла. Особенно убедительно об этом написано в книге Islam and science: religious orthodoxy and the battle for rationality с предисловием Абдуса Салама, единственного нобелевского лауреата по физике, считавшего себя мусульманином. Если верить этой книге, в мире ислама наука угасла из-за того, что одно понимание этой религии подавило все иные, а сама идея нерушимых законов Природы была объявлена несовместимой со всемогуществом Аллаха3. При этом остался вопрос о причине такой перемены в исламской теологии, но открылась важная и противоположная роль религии в загадках № 2 и № 3.

А что можно сказать о загадке № 1, которая в драматической истории науки занимает совершенно особое место?

Греческое чудо

Так называют общий подъем Древней Греции — социально-культурный, экономический и политический. Объясняют его разными обстоятельствами истории с географией или удачным стечением всех обстоятельств. Ни одно из конкретных объяснений не стало общепризнанным, а формулировка «удачное стечение обстоятельств», как и «случайное стечение обстоятельств», по сути, означает отсутствие объяснения.

Из всех слагаемых греческого чуда выделяется рождение западной философии-и-науки — явление социально очень малое, зато документированное лучше других в сохранившихся текстах. Принципиально новая интеллектуальная традиция возникла в весьма узких историко-географических рамках, что заостряет вопрос о ключевых факторах ее возникновения в VI веке до н. э., расцвета в III веке до н. э. и угасания задолго до крушения античной цивилизации.

Среди знаменательных событий выделяются два идейных прорыва, авторами которых были Фалес Милетский, зачинатель греческого чуда, и Евклид, давший образец убедительной системы точного теоретического знания.

Помимо важности вклада в мировую историю, этих великих греков объединяет скудость биографических сведений и отсутствие идейных предшественников, что особенно интригует4. Ведь творение принципиально нового — главное отличие человека от иных живых существ.

Лишь библейский Бог сотворил «из ничего» целую Вселенную, а человек всегда на что-то опирается. Хотя бы потому, что к моменту творчества у него за спиной уже годы жизни и море впечатлений, осознанных и неосознанных, в которых могут прятаться подсказки.

По мнению Аристотеля, одного из величайших философов Древней Греции, жившего тремя веками позже Фалеса и чуть-чуть не дожившего до Евклида, «и теперь и прежде удивление побуждает людей философствовать, причем вначале они удивлялись тому, что непосредственно вызывало недоумение, а затем, мало-помалу продвигаясь таким образом далее, они задавались вопросом о более значительном, например, о смене положения Луны, Солнца и звезд, а также о происхождении Вселенной».

С этой подсказкой вглядимся в начало начал греческой философии-и-науки и попытаемся разгадать, что же могло удивить Фалеса и Евклида.

Историки, обшарив научное наследие двух соседних, гораздо более древних цивилизаций — египетской и вавилонской — и найдя там много конкретных знаний, пригодившихся грекам, не нашли никаких намеков, которые могли бы помочь Фалесу и Евклиду породить их главные идеи. Что, конечно, говорит об их гениальности, но дает и простор для воображения.

Этим простором я воспользовался, хоть и не знаю языков упомянутых трех древних культур, а с их историей знаком лишь дилетантски: почти всю жизнь я занимался историей физики XX века и лишь в последнее десятилетие увлекся загадкой рождения современной науки.

Естественно было начать с сопоставления современной науки и древнегреческой, но мешал камень преткновения — необъяснимость греческого чуда. Забравшись на этот камень, я дал волю воображению, опираясь на опыт расследования хода мысли физиков XX века и полагая, что человек по своей психологической сути не очень изменился за последние пару-тройку тысяч лет — во всяком случае, человек свободно мыслящий и любознательный. Иначе бы тексты, созданные в древности, ничего не говорили бы ни уму ни сердцу в наше просвещенное время.

Мыслящих и любознательных всегда немного, но лишь они стремятся к познанию мира. По мнению Аристотеля, подлинная мудрость — это «наука, исследующая первые начала». Он был не только великим философом, но еще и первым историком философии. Если верить ему, «большинство первых философов считало началом всего одни лишь материальные начала, а именно то, из чего состоят все вещи, из чего как первого они возникают и во что как в последнее они, погибая, превращаются, причем сущность хотя и остается, но изменяется в своих проявлениях». А в начале начал «Фалес — основатель такого рода философии — утверждал, что начало — вода».

Новую эпоху в познании мира Фалес Милетский начал вопросом: «Что есть архэ всего сущего?» (Значение греческого слова ἀρχή— ‘первоначало, первооснова, первоэлемент’.) Ответ Фалеса — «Вода!» — сочли неубедительным даже ближайшие его последователи, но сам вопрос стал магистральным для развития греческой философии. И другие предлагавшиеся ответы — апейрон, воздух, число, огонь, атомы, идеи… — вехи на пути мышления, нацеленного на познание мира. На этом пути «первоначало» переходило из материальной формы в идеальную и обратно, умножалось в количестве, пока не закрепилось на две тысячи лет в виде четырех земных элементов (Огонь, Воздух, Вода, Земля) и пятого небесного (Квинтэссенция, или Эфир). Этот «сухой остаток» греческой философии закрепил Аристотель, но историю философии он начал именно с Фалеса, и в этом с Аристотелем согласны все историки античности (по крайней мере, те, книги которых я читал). При этом совершенно неизвестно, что привело Фалеса к его вопросу. Как ему взбрело на ум, что и камень, и растущий рядом с ним цветок, с которого вспорхнула бабочка, и человек, разглядывающий всё это, могут иметь некое общее «первоначало»?

Ответ на этот вопрос я измыслил, опираясь на два наблюдения за физиками XX века, — верные, полагаю, и в других веках: 1) наука не отделена от жизни непроницаемой перегородкой; 2) среди свободно и глубоко мыслящих людей есть и теисты, и атеисты.

С первым вряд ли кто будет спорить, а вот со вторым могут не согласиться многие и среди атеистов, и среди теистов. (Теистом, для ясности, я называю любого неатеиста5.) Для них приведу лишь два довода.

Древнейший довод дается в Библии, где два псалма начинаются фразой: «Сказал безумный в сердце своем: Бога нет!»6 Неодобрение псалмопевца объяснимо, разумеется, его теизмом, но важнее слова «в сердце своем», говорящие о глубине древнего и совершенно ненаучного атеизма.

Новейший довод дает XX век. Среди физиков всегда преобладали атеисты, однако великие преобразователи физики XX века — Планк, Эйнштейн и Бор — признавали важность религиозной традиции. А ближе к нам во времени и пространстве совершенно нецерковный Сахаров так выразил свое кредо:

«Я не могу представить себе Вселенную и человеческую жизнь без какого-то осмысляющего их начала, без источника духовной «теплоты», лежащего вне материи и ее законов. Вероятно, такое чувство можно назвать религиозным».

Знакомые с библейским взглядом на человека и на Вселенную могут узнать этот взгляд в словах физика-гуманиста, у которого выражение «не могу представить себе» звучит сильнее, чем просто «верю».

Фалес из Милета (620?–540? до н. э.)

Фалес Милетский («Троицкий вариант» №4, 2021)

Первых греческих философов Аристотель назвал физиками (буквально переводя — природниками; в нынешней терминологии больше подошло бы понятие «физикалист»), от греческого «физис» — ‘природа’. Ответ на вопрос Фалеса они искали в пределах природы, не привлекая внеприродных начал, сверхприродных сил. Отсюда ясно, что в греческом чуде невозможно отделить философию от науки, а саму ту философию-и-физику стоило бы назвать величайшим вкладом атеизма (физикализма) в развитие человечества. Даже тем древнегреческим философам, кого потом назовут идеалистами, не нужны были многочисленные греческие боги с их легендарными интригами и безбожными безобразиями. С точки зрения среднего древнего грека, они были атеистами.

Но что же могло привести Фалеса к его странному первовопросу?

Начну с того, что основоположник греческой философии и первый в списке «семи мудрецов» Греции сам был не вполне греком. Он происходил из финикийцев, которые, прежде чем даровать миру мудрейшего из греков, изобрели алфавитную письменность, дали лучших мореходов-предпринимателей Средиземноморья и лучших инженеров-строителей, с чьей помощью, согласно Библии, царь Соломон построил Храм в Иерусалиме.

Унаследовав от предков тягу к путешествиям и предприимчивость, Фалес отправился в Египет за знаниями — и вернулся не с пустыми руками. Милет, где жил Фалес, находился на территории нынешней Турции, а Финикия — на побережье нынешнего Ливана. Так что, путешествуя из Милета в Египет и обратно, Фалес вполне мог навестить свою историческую родину — остановиться на пару дней у родственников, обменяться новостями. А новости тогда в Финикии были удивительные, точнее ужасающие.

В соседней Иудее тамошний царь Иосия (648?–609? до н. э.), по увещеванию пророка Иеремии (655?–586? до н. э.), затеял радикальную религиозную реформу, беспощадно борясь с культами финикийских богов и насаждая веру в своего диковинного одного-единственного Бога. Статуи великих финикийских богов Баала, Астарты и других выбросили из Иерусалимского храма — из храма, построенного финикийскими инженерами! Разрушали святилища на высотах, на жертвенниках убивали жрецов. И всё это ради какого-то иудейского Бога — безымянного, единственного и неповторимого, незримого и неизобразимого и настолько могущественного, как там считали, что создал весь мир из ничего и царствует единолично. При этом ссылались на какую-то книгу Закона… Дикий народ. Экстремисты.

Фалес, похоже, родился атеистом и все религии считал более или менее забавными выдумками невежественных людей. Его интересовали реальные знания об устройстве мира, и ради этого он готов был поехать хоть на край света. Странный бог иудеев мог привлечь его внимание лишь своей необычностью.

Иудея и Финикия, близкие по расстоянию и языку, радикально отличались религией. Боги Финикии, Греции и Египта надзирали за разными городами, разными стихиями, разными ремеслами. А эти дикие иудеи почему-то решили, что их Бог со всеми делами может справиться единолично! Равнодушный ко всем богам, Фалес мог, однако, задать себе вопрос, подсказанный этим ходом мысли, но гораздо более интересный: «А что может быть единым первоначалом всех наблюдаемых явлений?»

Перебрав известные ему кандидатуры, на роль архэ он выбрал воду. Во-первых, без воды, как известно, «и ни туды и ни сюды» — жизнь невозможна. Во-вторых, вода — вещество, которое бывает и твердым, и жидким, и газообразным. В-третьих, вода универсальна: из какого источника ее ни взять, она одинаковая. Да, морская — соленая, но если выпарить, то самая обычная.

Так примерно, с вопроса Фалеса, и могло начаться греческое чудо философии-и-науки. А если бы какой-нибудь древнегреческий журналист спросил Фалеса, как он пришел к своей гениальной идее, тот мог бы ответить: «Когда б вы знали, из какого сора…» Ведь в те времена в Греции понятия не имели о маленьком варварском Иудейском царстве и тем более о его недавней гибели под натиском великой Вавилонии. Финикийцы, узнав о разрушении Иерусалимского храма, могли думать, что это финикийские боги отомстили за поругание, но греко-финикиец Фалес, в богов не веривший, скорее предположил бы, что странная религия иудеев — признак их общей неадекватности, которая и привела к исчезновению их царства. Всего несколько лет Фалес не дожил до падения Вавилона, начала возвращения иудеев на родину и восстановления Храма.

Первые свидетельства о том, что в Греции знали о евреях, относятся ко времени двумя веками позже. То было время Евклида, жившего в городе, основанном в Египте Александром Македонским в 332 году до н. э. и названном в его честь Александрией.

Евклид из Александрии (~ 300±? до н. э.)

Евклида называют первым математиком Александрийской школы; но больше ничего о его жизни не известно — даже о датах рождения и смерти. Зато его книге «Начала», как учебнику математики, была суждена мировая слава на протяжении более двух тысячелетий. Историки видят в Евклиде не столько великого математика, сколько величайшего методиста — преподавателя математики. Он придумал новый — аксиоматический — способ изложения геометрии и дал бессмертный образец убедительно точной системы знаний.

Казалось бы, при чем тут иудеи — то есть жители Иудеи, которых я почему-то назвал евреями? Назвал я их так, поскольку греки по-настоящему узнали евреев не в Иудее, а в Александрии Египетской, куда те прибыли — по приглашению греческих властей — вскоре после основания города, образовав заметное и весьма автономное меньшинство. Занимались они военным делом, ремеслами и торговлей, при этом сохраняли свою религию и обычаи, но осваивали язык и книжную ученость греков. Осваивали настолько активно, что стали забывать родной язык и потому перевели свою Тору на греческий.

Так что Евклид жил и учил математике в городе, населенном в основном греками и евреями. Практически ничего больше о первом александрийском математике история не знает. Не нашел я в книгах никаких гипотез о происхождении главной его идеи. Была уже, конечно, общая идея о том, что утверждения надо доказывать логически, а не просто ссылаться на авторитеты или конкретные примеры. Но никто не ставил задачу найти минимальный набор аксиом, исходя из которых можно доказать любое верное математическое утверждение.

Евклид с учениками. Фрагмент фрески Рафаэля «Афинская школа» («Троицкий вариант» №4, 2021)

Сохранились лишь два легендарных свидетельства о Евклиде. Когда первый греческий царь Египта спросил его, нет ли полегче пути изучить геометрию, учитель ответил, что царского пути к геометрии нет. А когда некий абитуриент спросил, какую выгоду он получит, изучив геометрию, Евклид велел слуге: «Дай ему три обола и проводи к выходу».

Возможно, тот абитуриент был евреем: среди них, таки да, встречаются люди весьма прагматичные. Но встречаются и вполне теоретичные. Таким был, например, Альберт Эйнштейн. Профессию ему помогли выбрать два чуда. Первое чудо он увидел пятилетним, и то был компас, стрелка которого указывала одно и то же направление, как ни крути. А второе чудо пережил 12-летним, открыв книжку по геометрии Евклида. Первое чудо определило профессию физика, а второе уточнило: физика-теоретика.

Не сомневаюсь, что в Александрии к Евклиду приходили учиться и теоретичные еврейские юноши. Наиболее успешные из них могли озадачивать его, наводя на такого рода мысли: если они так быстро освоили греческую логику математических доказательств и отлично соображают, то почему они держатся своих странных еврейских обычаев? Почему, например, заставляют своих рабов бездельничать каждый седьмой день?

Если есть вопрос, человек науки ищет ответ. В данном случае проще всего было спросить кого-то из его еврейских учеников, и тот, объясняя, рассказал бы, наверно, о сотворении мира и человека, об Исходе из Египта и о десяти заповедях, полученных Моисеем лично от Творца мира.

Могу представить себе, что после знакомства с этим взглядом на мир Евклид подумал бы: «Народные сказки евреев, конечно, ничуть не убедительнее нашей «Илиады», но там как-то больше порядка. Действительно, если бог всего один и дал десять главных правил жизни, порядок обеспечить легче. Тем более что всё записано в книге, которую они называют Священным Писанием. Одно из правил — как раз о седьмом дне. Оказывается, они со своими рабами не просто бездельничают каждый седьмой день, а празднуют его, напоминая детям и рабам, что их еврейский бог, сотворив за шесть дней весь мир, в седьмой день отдыхал. Хмм… Десять главных правил… Десять аксиом? Интересно, а сколько аксиом надо выбрать в геометрии, чтобы, исходя из них, можно было доказать все верные теоремы? Конечно, надо выбрать такие аксиомы, чтобы любой признал их очевидными безо всякого доказательства. Например, что через две точки можно провести лишь одну прямую линию. В „священных“-то сказках никакие аксиомы не очевидны. Ну как проверить, сотворил Бог мир за шесть дней или за восемь? Если Он действительно всемогущий, мог бы управиться и быстрее. И отдых вряд ли был бы Ему нужен…»

Для Евклида, как и для Фалеса, любые религиозные истории были народными сказками, но он, думаю, согласился бы, что если некоторые истории принять за истину, то из них уже вполне убедительно можно извлечь и какие-то представления о мире и правила жизни.

К сходному выводу пришел в середине XX века выдающийся математик Джон фон Нейман (успешно занимавшийся также физикой и компьютерами и, по мнению друзей, полный агностик): «Вероятно, Бог все-таки должен существовать, иначе многие вещи объяснить гораздо труднее»7. Имея некоторое представление о личности фон Неймана и о его друзьях, главную из этих «вещей» я вижу в познаваемости мира.

Агностик фон Нейман, конечно, слышал библейские истории с детства, и ему легче было представить себе логический вывод «многих вещей» из существования непредставимого Бога. Евклиду же достаточно было понять, что в глазах его еврейского ученика нематематические аксиомы Библии «доказывают» — логически влекут за собой — совсем неочевидные «человеческие вещи», и это могло подсказать новый методический прием преподавания геометрии, то бишь «теории землемерия»: найти очевидные для всех аксиомы, чтобы из них логически вывести — доказать — все теоремы, включая вовсе не очевидные.

В геометрии Евклида можно видеть первый ответ на вопрос Фалеса, сохранивший свое научное значение до наших дней. Область действия этого ответа ограничена миром геометрических фигур, но зато эмпирическая истинность и теоретическая полнота вполне убедительны. Следуя примеру Евклида, другой столь же убедительный и нетленный ответ дал Архимед в своей физике равновесия. Расстояние между геометрией и физикой Архимеда было гораздо меньше, чем может показаться ныне. До открытия Лобачевского геометрия Евклида была наукой о свойствах фигур в реальном физическом пространстве, т. е. наукой о некоторых свойствах природы, т. е. физикой (в смысле Аристотеля).

Доменико Фетти. Архимед («Троицкий вариант» №4, 2021)

Если происхождение замечательных греческих (и совершенно атеистических) идей Фалеса и Евклида можно связать с удивительными для них библейскими идеями монотеизма и антропоцентризма, то удивление, по Аристотелю, помогло перевоплощению религиозных идей в атеистически-научные. Личный атеизм греческих мыслителей помогал вдумываться в реальные свойства природы, не привлекая лишних сущностей — сверхприродных, или сверхъестественных. Отсюда ответ на вопрос в заголовке статьи: физика началась с атеизма.

Если к описанным трем разгадкам добавить передряги наук естественных (и процветание противоестественных) в стране «научного» атеизма, получим все возможные роли теизма и атеизма в истории науки: активная, нейтральная и негативная. При этом за пределы естествознания выходит факт плодотворного сотрудничества теистов и атеистов, что подсказывает новое слово в истории науки — паратеизм (приставка пара- означает, напомню, нахождение рядом).

Взгляд историка-паратеиста на сотрудничество атеистов и теистов

Паратеизм! Хоть имя дико,
Но мне ласкает слух оно…

Паратеист, независимо от собственной (не)религиозной ориентации, признает историческим фактом соучастие теистов и атеистов в свободной мысли любой эпохи, начиная со времен библейско-античных и до наших дней. К этому определению меня привела работа над биографией Андрея Сахарова, который знал, что «люди находят моральные и душевные силы и в религии, а также и не будучи верующими».

При этом я опираюсь на самоопределение физика (и нобелевского лауреата) Виталия Гинзбурга: атеист отрицает существование чего-то сверхъестественного, чего-то помимо природы, считает мир существующим независимо от сознания и первичным по отношению к сознанию.

«Первичность и независимость» мира по отношению к сознанию атеист Гинзбург (хорошо мне знакомый) мог бы заменить словом «объективность», пояснив, что научные истины объективны, а религиозные — субъективны. Он, однако, признавал, что в науке нет ясности «в вопросе о происхождении жизни и, особенно, сознания». А на интуитивно-практическом уровне сознание, включая самосознание, неизбежно субъективно. И люди науки силами своего субъективного сознания открывают и обосновывают объективные научные истины. Об этой парадоксально очевидной связи говорил Нильс Бор: «Язык религии гораздо ближе к поэзии, чем к науке. Люди слишком склонны думать, что наука изучает объективные факты, поэзия пробуждает субъективные чувства, а религия, раз она говорит об объективной истине, должна подчиняться научным критериям истинности. Такое разделение на объективную и субъективную стороны мира кажется мне слишком насильственным».

Сосуществование теистов и атеистов не так давно, в 2012 году, объяснили гарвардские психологи. Суть объяснения выражена заглавием их публикации «Divine Intuition: Cognitive Style Influences Belief in God»8. Они искали связь склонности к религиозному мировосприятию с разными личностными факторами и обнаружили, что на эту склонность не влияют уровень образования и интеллекта, (не)религиозность семейного окружения, достаток и политическая ориентация; влияет лишь тип мышления — интуитивный или аналитический. Психологи придумали остроумный тест, предварительно различив тип мышления испытуемых. Такое различие работоспособно и в истории науки. В научном познании важны оба инструмента — интуитивная изобретательность и логический анализ, но относительные роли этих двух инструментов у разных людей различны.

Паратеизм можно выразить уравнением:

«Бог» = сумма «случайностей»,

которое одни читают слева направо, а другие — справа налево, при этом отбрасывая лишние для себя кавычки. Для библейского теиста никаких «чистых» случайностей нет: Творец Вселенной «отвечает» за всё, и даже за то, что возложил на людей ответственность за дарованную им свободу. Уравнение это, однако, не работало бы для античных политеистов: те просто не могли представить себе Одного-Единственного Бога, а все случайности считали делом рук тройки Мойр, неподвластных и богам. Поэтому выдающийся античный философ-атеист Лукреций в своей знаменитой поэме отвергал богов всегда оптом, во множественном числе.

А в Новое время суть паратеизма выражена в словах Блеза Паскаля (1623–1662), физика, математика и религиозного философа: «Не ропщите на Господа за то, что Он так сокрыт от нас, но возблагодарите за то, что так нам явлен…» Поэтому праведные теисты благодарны Всевышнему за дар веры, а праведные атеисты бескорыстно выполняют трудное поручение — особенно трудное из-за того, что они не ведают, Кто дал им это поручение.

Так или иначе, на протяжении истории современной физики работы хватало и для теистов, и для атеистов. Но можно заметить некое разделение труда: теистами были все изобретатели новых фундаментальных понятий. Каждое такое понятие, согласно Эйнштейну, — свободное изобретение человеческого духа, невыводимое логически из эмпирических данных.

Именно в этом радикальное отличие современной науки от античной. Все фундаментальные научные понятия Древней Греции были основаны на обыденном опыте, имели наглядный, «осязаемый» характер: число, точка, прямая, чашечные весы, равновесие… А все новые фундаментальные понятия современной науки изобретались «нелогично», не были наглядны, были невидимы, неосязаемы, несовместимы с имевшимися представлениями, абсурдны вначале даже для большинства коллег изобретателя.

Первую такую «абсурдную» идею — движение Земли (со скоростью 30 км /с!) — ввел в науку Коперник. Абсурдность была явной уже потому, что эту идею, предложенную в общем виде еще в Античности, античные же астрономы отвергли. А Коперник, исходя из аксиомы гелиоцентризма и применив серьезную астроматематику, получил замечательные астрономические следствия. Настолько замечательные, что они заразили-зарядили Кеплера и Галилея познавательной смелостью.

Кеплер применил этот заряд вначале лихо, но неудачно, а затем трудоемко и очень успешно, открыв законы движения планет. А физик Галилей, веря в общность законов земных и небесных, придумывал земные опыты для исследования свободного падения. Размышляя над астрономией Коперника и физикой Аристотеля, он изобрел «невидимое» и, казалось бы, очень простое физическое понятие «пустота», точнее — «движение в пустоте». Но изобрел вопреки философскому запрету Аристотеля, считавшего само понятие пустоты ложным. С мнением Аристотеля философы соглашались две тысячи лет. А физик Галилей доверял не авторитетам, а своим глазам и собственному разуму. И открыл первые фундаментальные законы природы: закон инерции, закон свободного падения и принцип относительности. Тем самым он, по выражению Эйнштейна, стал «отцом современной физики и, по сути, всего современного естествознания».

Следующие невидимые, абсурдные вначале для большинства физиков, но поразительно плодотворные понятия — гравитация, электромагнитное поле, кванты энергии, постоянство скорости света и фотоны, квантовые состояния — изобрели Ньютон, Максвелл, Планк, Эйнштейн и Бор — еретики-изобретатели современной науки. Их примеру последовали изобретатели «невидимых» понятий и за пределами физики: химических атомов, биологической эволюции, движения континентов и др.

Библейский теизм Галилея был источником его фундаментального познавательного оптимизма, целеустремленности и смелой изобретательности. А предметно более всего ему помогли научные достижения древних греков-атеистов. Геометрия Евклида дала образец убедительного знания, а физика Архимеда послужила также инструментом познания в поиске законов движения. Недаром Галилей назвал Архимеда «божественнейшим» (divinissimi)9.

Галилео Галилей («Троицкий вариант» №4, 2021)

Я бы сказал, что Архимед — первый настоящий физик, а Галилей — первый современный физик.

Все эксперименты и математические понятия Галилея были доступны Архимеду. Галилей «лишь» освободился от ограничения искать самоочевидные «первоначала» — фундаментальные понятия и аксиомы, фактически признав право творческой интуиции подсказывать совсем не очевидные понятия для описания невидимых первоначал, с тем чтобы проверять подсказки в опытах.

Галилей не только изобрел современную физику, но и описал свой научно- библейский теизм, который можно суммировать так.

И Библия, и Природа исходят от Бога. Библия продиктована Им и убеждает в истинах, необходимых для спасения, на языке иносказательном, доступном и людям необразованным, и было бы богохульством понимать слова буквально, приписывая Богу свойства человека. Природа же, никогда не нарушая законов, установленных для нее Богом, вовсе не заботится о том, понятны ли ее скрытые причины. Чтобы мы сами могли их познавать, Бог наделил нас чувствами, языком и разумом. И если чувственный опыт и надлежащие доказательства о явлениях Природы убеждают нас, это не следует подвергать сомнению из-за нескольких слов Библии, которые кажутся имеющими другой смысл.

Речь идет о вере в то, что нерушимые законы управляют скрытыми причинами в Природе и что человек способен их познавать, изобретая понятия и проверяя их опытом и разумом. В глазах Галилея, способность эта дарована Богом, сотворившим мир, как ясно из Библии, ради человека.

Возникает вопрос: если библейский взгляд на человека оказался столь плодотворным для науки, почему он не помог иудеям — «народу Книги» — войти в науку еще в эпоху Евклида и Архимеда, когда у иудеев уже установилось публичное чтение Библии? Тут можно было бы обсуждать отличие чтения ритуально-литургического от самостоятельного, которое стало доступно не только «теистам-профессионалам» лишь после изобретения книгопечатания. Но главное — в другом.

В эпоху Евклида и Архимеда плодотворным был именно атеизм — стремление убедительно точно объяснить материальный мир, опираясь лишь на зримые, очевидные «первоначала». И успех древнегреческой науки нечаянно подкрепил зафиксированный в Библии «божественно высокий» статус человека, на который имеет право каждый. Не зря Маймонид (1138–1204), один из величайших еврейских философов и толкователей Библии, был также человеком науки и практикующим врачом; он учил, что к познанию Бога можно идти двумя путями — изучая Библию и исследуя Природу.

Научные достижения греков-безбожников помогли библейским теистам, подобным Маймониду и Галилею, глубже понять самую первую библейскую заповедь человеку: «Плодитесь и умножайтесь, и заселяйте землю, и обладайте ею, и властвуйте над рыбами, птицами, над всеми животными». В понимании Галилея, Всевышний не просто вручил людям землю, а наделил их чувствами, языком и разумом для того, чтобы они могли учиться властвовать над всей землею, познавая и осваивая мир, сотворенный для них.

Такое понимание библейского антропоцентризма лишь укрепилось после устранения Коперником древнего постулата геоцентризма: человек оказался способен познавать мир поразительно далеко за пределами обыденной жизни. И в дальнейшем библейский антропоцентризм служил, можно сказать, «духовным допингом» для великих физиков-изобретателей. Надо помнить, однако, что в эпоху Коперника-Ньютона, когда греческий метод самоочевидных «первоначал» исчерпался, античная наука помогла в изобретении «первоначал» совсем не очевидных и попросту невидимых. Успех столь неочевидных изобретений объясняет, почему потенциал античной науки после Архимеда исчерпался. А связь двух эпох иллюстрирует чудо познаваемости мира, которое, по словам Эйнштейна, «лишь усиливается по мере расширения наших знаний». Еще ярче это чудо проявилось при переходе от классической физики к квантово-релятивистской, когда родились новые фундаментальные — невидимые и «нелогичные» — понятия.

В библейском мировосприятии коренится не только смелая изобретательность, но и личное смирение. Такое парадоксальное сочетание было свойственно всем великолепным физикам-еретикам. Галилей, например, писал, что он «лишь открыл путь и способы исследования, которыми воспользуются умы более проницательные», чем у него, и проникнут в более удаленные области природных явлений. Ньютон казался себе «ребенком, нашедшим пару камешков покрасивее на берегу моря нераскрытых истин». Эйнштейн говорил о своем религиозном чувстве как о смиренном изумлении перед чудом познаваемости мира.

Были, впрочем, именитые физики, которые в познаваемости мира видели не чудо, а результат усердного труда и предвидели близкое окончание этих трудов — окончательное завершение фундаментальной физики.

В 1976 году известный астрофизик Иосиф Шкловский писал: «Каждый серьезный физик знает, что первая треть XX века изобиловала значительно большим числом фундаментальных открытий, чем последующие сорок лет. Мы полагаем, что это отнюдь не случайность, а выражение познаваемости конечного числа объективно существующих фундаментальных законов природы». В 1980 году Стивен Хокинг, вступая в должность, которую когда-то занимал Ньютон, заявил, что «окончательная теория, которая опишет все возможные наблюдения», может быть создана еще до конца XX века, и номинировал конкретный тип теории. А десять лет спустя Стивен Вайнберг заявил: «Если история чему-нибудь учит, так это тому, что окончательная теория существует».

Всех троих теоретиков объединяло и то, что они свой атеизм проповедовали публично, пытаясь обосновывать научно. И похоже, все трое не слишком усердно учились у истории физики. Два урока особенно пригодились бы им.

Они, разумеется, знали о «проклятой» проблеме фундаментальной физики: как совместить две проверенные опытами фундаментальные теории — квантовую и гравитационную. Но не знали о глубине этой проблемы, осознанной в 1935 году советским физиком Матвеем Бронштейном (1906–1938). В результате физико-математического анализа он пришел к выводу, что решение проблемы квантовой гравитации «требует радикальной перестройки теории и, в частности, отказа от римановой геометрии, оперирующей, как мы здесь видим, принципиально не наблюдаемыми величинами — а может быть и отказа от обычных представлений о пространстве и времени и замены их какими-то гораздо более глубокими и лишенными наглядности понятиями»10.

Размышляя о перестройке такого масштаба, стоит помнить, что после создания фундаментальной теории Ньютона прошло почти два века, прежде чем появилось новое фундаментальное понятие — электромагнитное поле. Поэтому историю торопить не следует, а лучше, как говорится, запастись попкорном.

Паратеизм в истории науки и за ее пределами

Суммируя, можно сказать, что в начале истории физики у греческих атеистов было явное преимущество: они искали самоочевидные первоначала-аксиомы, не привлекая посторонних — потусторонних — сил, и это им удалось. Но их преимущество оказалось ограниченным во времени, и на две тысячи лет развитие физики практически остановилось.

Лишь в XVI веке появились исследователи, готовые искать неочевидные первоначала. Об одном из таких исследователей Эйнштейн писал: «Кеплер жил в эпоху, когда еще не было уверенности в существовании некоторой общей закономерности для всех явлений природы. Какой глубокой была у него вера в такую закономерность, если, работая в одиночестве, никем не поддерживаемый и не понятый, он на протяжении многих лет черпал в ней силы для трудного и кропотливого эмпирического исследования движения планет и математических законов этого движения!»

По мнению Эйнштейна, источник такой глубокой веры — библейское мировосприятие. Оно было присуще и Копернику, и Галилею, и Ньютону, но все они опирались на достижения древних греков. Таким образом, греческие атеисты помогли библейским теистам — изобретателям современной физики, уверенным в том, что исследование Природы приближает к ее Творцу. Кеплер так и писал: «Астрономы служат Всевышнему, разглядывая величие Творца в его творениях, а не восхваляя свой интеллект».

Греческие философы выбирали своей опорой либо мир реальных материальных объектов, либо мир идеальных форм — идей таких объектов. Выбирали по своим личным склонностям, но разрыв между материальным и духовным был неизбежен. Платон, со своего идеального высока смотревший на мир материальный, объяснял его несовершенства изначально-хаотической сутью материи. А ученик Платона Аристотель слишком крепко стоял на земле, слишком доверял глазам своим и не верил в способность математики проникать в суть реальности. Гиганты греческой философии остановились перед роковым разрывом между миром идей и материальным миром.

Платон и Аристотель («Троицкий вариант» №4, 2021)

А для библейского теиста никакого рокового разрыва нет. Библейский внематериальный Бог сотворил материальный мир и благословил его. Идеальный язык логики и математики, дарованный человеку тем же Богом, не может противоречить реальным наблюдениям в научных экспериментах. И в познании мира человек свободен изобретать новые идеально-невидимые понятия, чтобы на их основе создавать целые теории, которые можно проверить на опыте.

Разрыва между духом и материей нет, но есть контраст между поэтически-образным языком Библии и прозаически-четким языком науки. Об этом сказал Нильс Бор:

«Религии всех эпох говорят образами, символами и парадоксами, видимо, потому, что просто не существует никаких других возможностей охватить ту реальность, которая имеется в виду. Но отсюда вовсе не следует, что эта реальность не подлинная. <…> То, что разные религии выражают свое содержание в совершенно различных формах, не может служить возражением против действительного ядра религии. На эти различные формы можно смотреть как на взаимно дополнительные описания, которые, хотя и исключают друг друга, нужны, чтобы передать богатые возможности, вытекающие из отношений человека с полнотой всего сущего».

Подлинная реальность, о которой говорит Бор, — это реальность культуры, всё более важной частью которой становится наука. А развитие культуры и науки можно представить как изменение их языков, как рождение новых слов и изменение смысла старых. В науке этот процесс гораздо больше подчиняется логике и объективным опытным фактам, но не сводится к этому.

В данной статье речь шла о том, что личные культурные пред-рассудки влияют на мышление человека науки, помогая или мешая.

Орфография в слове «пред-рассудки» нарушена, чтобы подчеркнуть их место в процессе познания. Такие пред-рассудки, или моральные постулаты, усваиваются из культурного окружения, начиная с семейного в самом раннем детстве, и чаще всего не осознаются — как утверждения, не требующие объективного доказательства (и не имеющие его), но служащие опорой для интеллекта. Это человек может обнаружить, лишь встречаясь с иной культурной традицией, и тогда может назвать такие постулаты просто предрассудками. Но в процессе познания личные пред-рассудки предшествуют рассудку, ограничивая осмысление или окрыляя его.

В XX веке, однако, в активную жизнь человечества, включая мировую науку, вошли культурные традиции не менее древние и распространенные, чем библейская, — прежде всего культуры Азии от Индии до Японии. Их культурные пред-рассудки не совпадают и не противоположны библейским, а, скорее, «перпендикулярны» им. Вклад этих культур в фундаментальную науку пока несоизмерим с западным, но сама их многовековая жизнеспособность подкрепляет мысль Бора о «богатых возможностях, вытекающих из отношений человека с полнотой всего сущего».

Если говорить только о фундаментальной науке, то не обязательно иметь в виду новые возможности для физики квантовой гравитации. Знакомство с системами культурных пред-рассудков Китая (вокруг идеи целостности) и Индии (вокруг идеи виртуальности) наводит на мысль, что они могли бы пригодиться для фундаментальной биологии и фундаментальной психологии (которых пока не существует). А науку прикладную в древних культурах Азии уже развивают на мировом уровне.

Некоторые идеи и практики Востока вполне прижились в западной культуре за пределами науки. В Рунете уже не надо объяснять слова «карма» и «фэншуй», а в офлайне айтишники занимаются йогой и другими гимнастиками с Востока. Но различие глубоких культурных пред-рассудков — источник серьезнейших проблем взаимного непонимания, недоверия и опасений. Лишь при осознании общей судьбы конкуренция культур становится плодотворным взаимодействием.

Представление об общности человеческого рода присуще не только библейскому сказанию, согласно которому все люди произошли от одной супружеской пары: в индийских и китайских мифах также можно найти идею о едином происхождении всех людей. Столь же древнее, впрочем, и представление о различных призваниях людей: библейская богоизбранность просветителей, индийское кастовое разделение труда, китайская выделенность благородных мужей, — но во всех этих случаях различные призвания служат общему благополучию.

Кардинальный вопрос — как относиться к другим, непохожим на тебя. Библейское наставление любить ближнего как самого себя и не обижать пришельца — самый известный рецепт в западном мире. Но, по сути, на тот же путь наставляет закон кармы и закон дао. В XX веке такая общность была выражена в надкультурных документах ООН об универсальных правах человека, но от торжественной бумаги до реальной жизни еще очень далеко.

Это было одной из главных забот Махатмы Ганди, который написал в 1921 году: «Я не хочу, чтобы в моем доме были глухие стены без окон. И хочу, чтобы культуры всех стран веяли у моего дома как можно свободнее. Но не хочу, чтобы какая-то из них сбила меня с ног». Это написал человек, получивший юридическое образование в Лондоне и долго живший в Южной Африке, т. е. хорошо знакомый с другими культурами и с жизнью культурного меньшинства. Полгода спустя после провозглашения независимости Индии его не просто сбил с ног, а убил соотечественник, считавший, что Ганди предает родную индийскую культуру.

В осознании общей судьбы человечества может помочь опыт истории науки. Общая цель — рациональное познание мира с опорой на объективный опыт — способствует плодотворному взаимодействию разных личных способов мышления, включая разные религиозные ориентации людей науки. При этом не было никакой административно единой организации научного сообщества, никакой вертикали научной власти. Замечательные примеры научного сотрудничества теистов и атеистов дали Максвелл и Больцман в физике, Добржанский и Майр в биологии. Никто из выдающихся людей науки не использовал (а)теистические доводы в обосновании научного знания, и все, похоже, были бы согласны с Сахаровым, считавшим «религиозную веру чисто внутренним, интимным и свободным делом каждого, так же как и атеизм». Не случайно все великие физики-изобретатели были еретиками, свободно мыслящими и чувствующими, толкующими Библию по собственному разумению.

За пределами науки теист и атеист чаще всего глядят один на другого с недоумением, подозревая другого в недостатке или в избытке воображения; в лучшем случае сочувствуют в том, что атеист, дескать, не слышит высшую музыку бытия, а верующий, мол, принимает воображаемое за действительное. Сочувствовать ближнему своему — уже немало. Но не плодотворней ли признать само свое сосуществование фактом, заслуживающим уважения? И задуматься над вопросами: Почему Всевышний Творец не устает творить атеистов или: Почему безбожная Природа не устает рождать теистов, к тому же очень разных?

Даже если четких ответов на эти вопросы нет под рукой, пример сообщества разноверующих людей науки, плодотворного сотрудничающих в поиске научных истин, может помочь человечеству в осознании общей судьбы и в поиске ответов на вопросы глобального масштаба.


1 Формулировка в оригинале: «Why did modern science, the mathematization of hypotheses about Nature, with all its implications for advanced technology, take its meteoric rise only in the West at the time of Galileo?» and why it «had not developed in Chinese civilization» which in the previous many centuries «was much more efficient than occidental in applying» natural knowledge to practical needs?

2 См.: Горелик Г. Просветительство и загадка современной науки // ТрВ-Наука. № 285 от 13 августа 2019 года и № 286 от 27 августа 2019 года; Gorelik G. A Galilean Answer to the Needham Question // Philosophia Scientiæ. 2017. 21(1). P. 93–110; Объяснение Гессена и вопрос Нидэма, или Как марксизм помог задать важный вопрос и помешал ответить на него // Эпистемология и философия науки. 2018. Т. 55. № 3. С. 153–171.

3 Hoodbhoy P. Islam and science: religious orthodoxy and the battle for rationality / Foreword by Mohammed Abdus Salam. London: Zed Books, 1991. P. 104–108.

4 См., напр.: Guthrie W. K. C. The Greek Philosophers: From Thales to Aristotle. Routledge Classics, 2013; Curd P. Presocratic Philosophy  // The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 Edition) / Edward N. Zalta (ed.); Burton D. M. The history of mathematics: an introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

5 Горелик Г. «Тайна веры и тайна неверия», или Научные основы паратеизма // Исследования по истории физики и механики. 2016–2018. М.: Янус-К, 2019. С. 46–103.

6 С. С. Аверинцев в своем переводе так прокомментировал еврейское слово оригинала: «Мы сохранили из уважения к культурной памяти, живущей в русском языке, традиционную передачу существительного נָבָל  [NAVAL], хотя существительное это весьма специфично: ‘безумный’ (или ‘безумец’) для его передачи слишком красиво, а ‘глупец’ — слишком невинно, поскольку оно имеет в виду дефект ума, но с концентрацией на дефекте морального и религиозного сознания, на некоторой онтологической бессмысленности».

7 Norman Macrae. John Von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More. AMS, 2000. P. 43.

8 Shenhav A., Rand D. G., Greene J. D. Divine Intuition: Cognitive Style Influences Belief in God // Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 2012. 141(3). P. 423–428.

9 В рукописи 1590 года «De Motu» («О движении»), с которой начался путь Галилея к изобретению современной физики.

10 Горелик Г. Матвей Бронштейн и квантовая гравитация. К 70-летию нерешенной проблемы // УФН. 2005. 1093–1108.

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