Екатерина вторая как пишется

Как правильно пишется словосочетание «Екатерина Вторая»

Екатери́на Втора́я

Екатери́на Втора́я (Екатери́на II)

Источник: Орфографический
академический ресурс «Академос» Института русского языка им. В.В. Виноградова РАН (словарная база
2020)

Екатерина II Великая
8-я императрица всероссийская
28 июня (9 июля) 1762 — 6 (17 ноября) 1796
Коронация:	1 (12 сентября) 1762
Предшественник:	Пётр III
Преемник:	Павел I
Рождение:	21 апреля (2 мая) 1729 Штеттин, (Пруссия[1]).
Смерть:	6 (17 ноября) 1796 Зимний дворец[2], Петербург
Похоронена:	Петропавловский собор, Петербург
Династия:	Аскании (по рождению)/ Романовы (по браку)
Отец:	Христиан-Август Ангальт-Цербстский
Мать:	Иоганна-Елизавета Гольштейн-Готторпская
Супруг:	Пётр III
Дети:	Павел I Петрович Анна Петровна Алексей Григорьевич Бобринский Елизавета Григорьевна Тёмкина
Автограф:
Екатерина II Великая на Викискладе

Екатери́на II Великая (Екатерина Алексе́евна, нем. Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) — 21 апреля (2 мая) 1729, Штеттин, Пруссия — 6 (17) ноября 1796, Зимний дворец, Петербург) — императрица всероссийская (1762—1796). Период её правления часто считают «золотым веком» Российской империи.

Происхождение

Родилась София Фредерика Августа Ангальт-Цербстская 21 апреля (2 мая) 1729 года в немецком померанском городе Штеттин (ныне Щецин в Польше). Отец происходил из цербст-дорнбургской линии ангальтского дома и состоял на службе у прусского короля, был полковым командиром, комендантом, затем губернатором города Штеттина, баллотировался в Курляндские герцоги, но неудачно, службу закончил прусским фельдмаршалом. Мать — из рода Гольштейн-Готторп, приходилась двоюродной теткой будущему Петру III. Дядя по материнской линии Адольф-Фридрих (Адольф Фредрик) с 1751 года был королём Швеции (избран наследником в 1743 г.). Родословная матери Екатерины II восходит к Кристиану I, королю Дании, Норвегии и Швеции, первому герцогу Шлезвиг-Голштейнскому и основателю династии Ольденбургов.

Детство, образование и воспитание

Семья герцога Цербстского была небогатой, Екатерина получила домашнее образование. Обучалась немецкому и французскому языкам, танцам, музыке, основам истории, географии, богословия. Воспитывалась в строгости. Росла любознательной, склонной к подвижным играм, настойчивой.

В 1744 году российской императрицей Елизаветой Петровной вместе с матерью была приглашена в Россию для последующего сочетания браком с наследником престола великим князем Петром Фёдоровичем, будущим императором Петром III и её троюродным братом. Сразу после приезда в Россию стала изучать русский язык, историю, православие, русские традиции, так как стремилась наиболее полно ознакомиться с Россией, которую воспринимала как новую родину. Среди её учителей выделяют известного проповедника Симона Тодорского (учитель православия), автора первой русской грамматики Василия Ададурова (учитель русского языка) и балетмейстера Ланге (учитель танцев). Вскоре она заболела воспалением лёгких, и состояние её было столь тяжёлым, что её мать предложила привести лютеранского пастора. София, однако, отказалась и послала за Симоном Тодорским. Это обстоятельство прибавило ей популярности при русском дворе^[3]. 28 июня (9 июля) 1744 София Фредерика Августа перешла из лютеранства в православие и получила имя Екатерины Алексеевны (то же имя и отчество, что и у матери Елизаветы — Екатерины I), а на следующий день была обручена с будущим императором.

Брак с наследником российского престола

21 августа (1 сентября) 1745 года в шестнадцатилетнем возрасте Екатерина была обвенчана с Петром Фёдоровичем, которому исполнилось 17 лет. Первые годы жизни Пётр совершенно не интересовался женой, и супружеских отношений между ними не существовало. Об этом Екатерина позже напишет:

Екатерина продолжает заниматься самообразованием. Она читает книги по истории, философии, юриспруденции, сочинения Вольтера, Монтескье, Тацита, Бейля, большое количество другой литературы. Основным развлечением для неё стала охота, верховая езда, танцы и маскарады. Отсутствие супружеских отношений с великим князем способствовало появлению у Екатерины любовников. Между тем, императрица Елизавета высказывала недовольство отсутствием детей у супругов.

Наконец, после двух неудачных беременностей, 20 сентября (1 октября) 1754 году Екатерина родила сына, которого у неё сразу забирают, называют Павлом (будущий император Павел I) и лишают возможности воспитывать, а позволяют только изредка видеть. Ряд источников утверждает, что истинным отцом Павла был любовник Екатерины С. В. Салтыков. Другие — что такие слухи лишены оснований, и что Петру была сделана операция, устранившая дефект, делавший невозможным зачатие. Вопрос об отцовстве вызывал интерес и у общества.

После рождения Павла отношения с Петром и Елизаветой Петровной окончательно испортились. Пётр открыто заводил любовниц, впрочем, не препятствуя делать это и Екатерине, у которой в этот период возникла связь с Станиславом Понятовским — будущим королём Польши. 9 (20) декабря 1758 года Екатерина родила дочь Анну, что вызвало сильное недовольство Петра, произнёсшего при известии о новой беременности: «Бог знает, откуда моя жена беременеет; я не знаю наверное, мой ли этот ребенок и должен ли я признавать его своим». В это время ухудшилось состояние Елизаветы Петровны. Всё это делало реальной перспективу высылки Екатерины из России или заключения её в монастырь^[5]. Ситуацию усугубляло то, что вскрылась тайная переписка Екатерины с опальным фельдмаршалом Апраксиными и английским послом Вильямсом, посвящённая политическим вопросам. Её прежние фавориты были удалены, но начал формироваться круг новых: Григорий Орлов, Дашкова и другие.

Смерть Елизаветы Петровны (25 декабря 1761 (5 января 1762)) и восшествие на престол Петра Фёдоровича под именем Петра III ещё больше отдалили супругов. Пётр III стал открыто жить с любовницей Елизаветой Воронцовой, поселив жену в другом конце Зимнего дворца. Когда Екатерина забеременела от Орлова это уже нельзя было объяснить случайным зачатием от мужа, так как общение супругов прекратилось к тому времени совершенно. Беременность свою Екатерина скрывала, а когда пришло время рожать, её преданный камердинер Василий Григорьевич Шкурин поджёг свой дом. Любитель подобных зрелищ Пётр с двором ушли из дворца посмотреть на пожар; в это время Екатерина благополучно родила. Так появился на свет божий первый на Руси граф Бобринский — основатель известной фамилии.

Переворот 28 июня 1762 года

Основная статья: Переворот 28 июня 1762 года

Вступив на трон, Пётр III осуществил ряд действий, вызвавших отрицательное отношение к нему офицерского корпуса. Так, он заключил невыгодный для России договор с Пруссией (в то время, как русские войска взяли Берлин) и вернул ей захваченные русскими земли. Одновременно он намерился в союзе с Пруссией выступить против Дании (союзницы России), с целью вернуть отнятый ею у Гольштейна Шлезвиг, причём сам намеревался выступить в поход во главе гвардии. Сторонники переворота обвиняли Петра III также в невежестве, слабоумии, нелюбви к России, полной неспособности к правлению. На его фоне выгодно смотрелась Екатерина — умная, начитанная, благочестивая и доброжелательная супруга, подвергающаяся преследованиям мужа.

После того, как отношения с мужем окончательно испортились, и усилилось недовольство императором со стороны гвардии, Екатерина решилась участвовать в перевороте. Её соратники, основными из которых были братья Орловы, Потёмкин и Хитрово, занялись агитацией в гвардейских частях и склонили их на свою сторону. Непосредственной причиной начала переворота стали слухи об аресте Екатерины и раскрытие и арест одного из участников заговора — поручика Пассека.

Ранним утром 28 июня (9 июля) 1762 года, пока Пётр III находился в Ораниенбауме, Екатерина в сопровождении Алексея и Григория Орловых приехала из Петергофа в Санкт-Петербург, где ей присягнули на верность гвардейские части. Пётр III, видя безнадёжность сопротивления, на следующий день отрёкся от престола, был взят под стражу и в первых числах июля погиб при невыясненных обстоятельствах.

2 (13 сентября) 1762 года Екатерина Алексеевна была коронована в Москве и стала императрицей всероссийской с именем Екатерина II.

Правление Екатерины II: общие сведения

В своих мемуарах Екатерина так характеризовала состояние России в начале своего царствования:

Финансы были истощены. Армия не получала жалованья за 3 месяца. Торговля находилась в упадке, ибо многие ее отрасли были отданы в монополию. Не было правильной системы в государственном хозяйстве. Военное ведомство было погружено в долги; морское едва держалось, находясь в крайнем пренебрежении. Духовенство было недовольно отнятием у него земель. Правосудие продавалось с торгу, и законами руководствовались только в тех случаях, когда они благоприятствовали лицу сильному

Императрица так сформулировала задачи, стоящие перед российским монархом^[6]:

1. Нужно просвещать нацию, которой должно управлять.
2. Нужно ввести добрый порядок в государстве, поддерживать общество и заставить его соблюдать законы.
3. Нужно учредить в государстве хорошую и точную полицию.
4. Нужно способствовать расцвету государства и сделать его изобильным.
5. Нужно сделать государство грозным в самом себе и внушающим уважение соседям.

Политика Екатерины II характеризовалась поступательным, без резких колебаний, развитием. По восшествии на престол она провела ряд реформ (судебную, административную и др.). Территория Российского государства существенно возросла за счёт присоединения плодородных южных земель — Крыма, Причерноморья, а также восточной части Речи Посполитой и др. Население возросло с 23,2 млн (в 1763 г.) до 37,4 млн (в 1796 г.), Россия стала самой населённой европейской страной (на неё приходилось 20 % населения Европы). Как писал Ключевский, «Армия со 162 тыс. человек усилена до 312 тыс., флот, в 1757 г. состоявший из 21 линейного корабля и 6 фрегатов, в 1790 г. считал в своем составе 67 линейных кораблей и 40 фрегатов, сумма государственных доходов с 16 млн руб. поднялась до 69 млн, то есть увеличилась более чем вчетверо, успехи внешней торговли : балтийской; в увеличении ввоза и вывоза, с 9 млн до 44 млн руб., черноморской, Екатериной и созданной, — с 390 тыс. в 1776 г. до 1900 тыс. руб. в 1796 г., рост внутреннего оборота обозначился выпуском монеты в 34 года царствования на 148 млн руб., тогда как в 62 предшествовавших года ее выпущено было только на 97 млн»^[7].

Экономика России продолжала оставаться аграрной. Доля городского населения в 1796 году составляла 6,3 %. Вместе с тем, был основан ряд городов (Тирасполь, Григориополь и др.), более, чем в 2 раза увеличилась выплавка чугуна (по которому Россия вышла на 1 место в мире), возросло число парусно-полотняных мануфактур. Всего к концу XVIII в. в стране насчитывалось 1200 крупных предприятий (в 1767 г. их было 663). Значительно увеличился экспорт российских товаров в европейские страны, в том числе через созданные черноморские порты.

Внутренняя политика

Приверженность Екатерины идеям Просвещения определила характер её внутренней политики и направления реформирования различных институтов российского государства. Для характеристики внутренней политики екатерининского времени часто используется термин «просвещённый абсолютизм». По мнению Екатерины, основанному на трудах французского философа Монтескье, обширные российские пространства и суровость климата обуславливают закономерность и необходимость самодержавия в России. Исходя из этого при Екатерине происходило укрепление самодержавия, усиление бюрократического аппарата, централизации страны и унификации системы управления.

Уложенная комиссия

Предпринята попытка созыва Уложенной Комиссии, которая бы систематизировала законы. Основная цель — выяснение народных нужд для проведения всесторонних реформ.

14 дек. 1766 г. Екатерина II опубликовала Манифест о созыве комиссии и указы о порядке выборов в депутаты. Дворянам разрешено избирать одного депутата от уезда, горожанам — одного депутата от города.

В комиссии приняло участие более 600 депутатов, 33 % из них было избрано от дворянства, 36 % — от горожан, куда также входили и дворяне, 20 % — от сельского населения (государственных крестьян). Интересы православного духовенства представлял депутат от Синода.

В качестве руководящего документа Комиссии 1767 г. императрица подготовила «Наказ» — теоретическое обоснование просвещенного абсолютизма.

Первое заседание прошло в Грановитой палате в Москве

Из-за консерватизма депутатов Комиссию пришлось распустить.

Императорский совет и преобразование Сената

Вскоре после переворота государственный деятель Н. И. Панин предложил создать Императорский совет: 6 или 8 высших сановников правят совместно с монархом (как кондиции 1730 г.). Екатерина отвергла этот проект.

По другому проекту Панина был преобразован Сенат — 15 дек. 1763 г. Он был разделён на 6 департаментов, возглавляемых обер-прокурорами, во главе становился генерал-прокурор. Каждый департамент имел определённые полномочия. Общие полномочия Сената были сокращены, в частности, он лишился законодательной инициативы и стал органом контроля за деятельностью государственного аппарата и высшей судебной инстанцией. Центр законотворческой деятельности переместился непосредственно к Екатерине и её кабинету со статс-секретарями.

Губернская реформа

7 нояб. 1775 г. было принято «Учреждение для управления губерний Всероссийской империи». Вместо трехзвенного административного деления — губерния, провинция, уезд, стало действовать двухзвенное — губерния, уезд (в основе которого лежал принцип численности податного населения). Из прежних 23 губерний образовано 50, в каждой из которых проживало 300—400 тыс. д.м.п. Губернии делились на 10-12 уездов, в каждом по 20-30 тыс. д.м.п.

Генерал-губернатор (наместник) — следил за порядком в местных центрах и ему подчинялись 2-3 губернии, объединенные под его властью. Имел обширные административные, финансовые и судебные полномочия, ему подчинялись все воинские части и команды, расположенные в губерниях.

Губернатор — стоял во главе губернии. Они подчинялись непосредственно императору. Губернаторов назначал Сенат. Губернаторам был подчинен губернский прокурор. Финансами в губернии занималась Казенная палата во главе с вице-губернатором. Землеустройством занимался губернский землемер. Исполнительным органом губернатора являлось губернское правление, осуществлявшее общий надзор за деятельностью учреждений и должностных лиц. В ведении Приказа общественного призрения находились школы, больницы и приюты (социальные функции), а также сословные судебные учреждения: Верхний земский суд для дворян, Губернский магистрат, рассматривавший тяжбы между горожанами, и Верхняя расправа для суда над государственными крестьянами. Палата уголовная и гражданская судила все сословия, были высшими судебными органами в губерниях

Капитан исправник — стоял во главе уезда, предводитель дворянства, избираемый им на три года. Он являлся исполнительным органом губернского правления. В уездах как и в губерниях есть сословные учреждения: для дворян (уездный суд), для горожан (городской магистрат) и для государственных крестьян (нижняя расправа). Существовали уездный казначей и уездный землемер. В судах заседали представители сословий.

Совестный суд — призван прекратить распри и мирить спорящих и ссорящихся. Этот суд был бессословным. Высшим судебным органом в стране становится Сенат.

Так как городов — центров уездов было явно недостаточно. Екатерина II переименовала в города многие крупные сельские поселения, сделав их административными центрами. Таким образом появилось 216 новых городов. население городов стали называть мещанами и купцами.

В отдельную административную единицу был выведен город. Во главе его вместо воевод был поставлен городничий, наделенный всеми правами и полномочиями. В городах вводился строгий полицейский контроль. Город разделялся на части (районы), находившиеся над надзором частного пристава, а части делились на кварталы, контролируемые квартальным надзирателем.

Ликвидация Запорожской Сечи

Проведение губернской реформы на Левобережной Украине в 1783—1785 гг. привело к изменению полкового устройства (бывших полков и сотен) на общее для Российской империи административное деление на губернии и уезды, окончательному установлению крепостного права и уравнению в правах казацкой старшины с российским дворянством. С заключением Кючук-Кайнарджийского договора (1774) Россия получила выход в Чёрное море и Крым. На западе ослабленная Речь Посполита была на грани разделов.

Таким образом, дальнейшая необходимость в сохранении присутствия Запорожских казаков на их исторической родине для охраны южных российских границ отпала. В то же время их традиционный образ жизни часто приводил к конфликтам с российскими властями. После неоднократных погромов сербских поселенцев, а также в связи с поддержкой казаками Пугачёвского восстания, Екатерина II приказала расформировать Запорожскую Сечь, что и было исполнено по приказу Григория Потёмкина об усмирении запорожских казаков генералом Петром Текели в июне 1775 года.

Сечь была бескровно расформирована, а потом сама крепость уничтожена. Большинство казаков было распущено, но через 15 лет о них вспомнили и создали Войско Верных Запорожцев, впоследствии Черноморское казачье войско, а в 1792 году Екатерина подписывает манифест, который дарит им Кубань на вечное пользование, куда казаки и переселились, основав город Екатеринодар.

Реформы на Дону создали войсковое гражданское правительство по образцу губернских администраций центральной России.

Начало присоединения Калмыцкого ханства

В результате общих административных реформ 70-х годов, направленных на укрепление государства, было принято решение о присоединении к Российской империи калмыцкого ханства.

Своим указом от 1771 г. Екатерина ликвидировала Калмыцкое ханство, тем самым начав процесс присоединения к России государства калмыков, ранее имевшее отношения вассалитета с Российским государством. Делами калмыков стала ведать особая Экспедиция калмыцких дел, учрежденная при канцелярии астраханского губернатора. При правителях же улусов были назначены приставы из числа русских чиновников. В 1772 г. при Экспедиции калмыцких дел был учрежден калмыцкий суд — Зарго, состоящий из трех членов — по одному представителю от трех главных улусов: торгоутов, дербетов и хошоутов.

Данному решению Екатерины предшествовала последовательная политика императрицы по ограничению ханской власти в Калмыцком ханстве. Так, в 60-х годах в ханстве усилились кризисные явления, связанные с колонизацией калмыцких земель русскими помещиками и крестьянами, сокращением пастбищных угодий, ущемлением прав местной феодальной верхушки, вмешательством царских чиновников в калмыцкие дела. После устройства укрепленной Царицынской линии в районе основных кочевий калмыков стали селиться тысячи семей донских казаков, по всей Нижней Волге стали строиться города и крепости. Под пашни и сенокосы отводились лучшие пастбищные земли. Район кочевий постоянно суживался, в свою очередь это обостряло внутренние отношения в ханстве. Местная феодальная верхушка также была недовольна миссионерской деятельностью русской православной церкви по христианизации кочевников, а также оттоком людей из улусов в города и села на заработки. В этих условиях в среде калмыцких нойонов и зайсангов, при поддержке буддийской церкви созрел заговор с целью ухода народа на историческую родину — в Джунгарию.

5 января 1771 г. калмыцкие феодалы, недовольные политикой императрицы, подняли улусы, кочевавшие по левобережью Волги, и отправились в опасный путь в Центральную Азию. Еще в ноябре 1770 года войско было собрано на левом берегу под предлогом отражения набегов казахов Младшего Жуза. Основная масса калмыцкого населения проживала в то время на луговой стороне Волги. Многие нойоны и зайсанги, понимая гибельность похода, желали остаться со своими улусами, но сзади идущее войско гнало всех вперед. Этот трагический поход обернулся для народа страшным бедствием. Небольшой по численности калмыцкий этнос потерял в пути погибшими в боях, от ран, холода, голода, болезней, а также пленными около 100 000 человек, лишился почти всего скота — основного богатства народа. [1], [2], [3].

Данные трагические события в истории калмыцкого народа нашли отражение в поэме Сергея Есенина «Пугачев».

Областная реформа в Эстляндии и Лифляндии

Прибалтика в результате проведения областной реформы в 1782—1783 гг. была разделена на 2 губернии — Рижскую и Ревельскую — с учреждениями, уже существовавшими в прочих губерниях России. В Эстляндии и Лифляндии был ликвидирован особый прибалтийский порядок, предусматривовший более обширные, чем у русских помещиков, права местных дворян на труд и личность крестьянина.

Губернская реформа в Сибири и Среднем Поволжье

Сибирь была разделена на три губернии: Тобольскую, Колыванскую и Иркутскую.

Реформа проводилась правительством без учета этнического состава населения: территория Мордовии была поделена между 4-мя губерниями: Пензенской, Симбирской, Томбовской и Нижегородской.

Экономическая политика

Правление Екатерины II характеризовалось развитием экономики и торговли. Указом 1780 года фабрики и промышленные заводы были признаны собственностью, распоряжение которой не требует особого дозволения начальства. В 1763 году был запрещён свободный обмен медных денег на серебряные, чтобы не провоцировать развитие инфляции. Развитию и оживлению торговли способствовало появление новых кредитных учреждений (государственного банка и ссудной кассы) и расширение банковских операций (с 1770 года введён приём вкладов на хранение). Был учреждён государственный банк и впервые налажен выпуск бумажных денег — ассигнаций.

Большое значение имело введённое императрицей государственное регулирование цен на соль, которая являлась одним из наиболее жизненно важных в стране товаров. Сенат законодательно установил цену на соль в размере 30 копеек за пуд (вместо 50 копеек) и 10 копеек за пуд в регионах массовой засолки рыбы. Не вводя государственную монополию на торговлю солью, Екатерина рассчитывала на усиление конкуренции и улучшение, в конечном итоге, качества товара.

Возросла роль России в мировой экономике — в Англию стало в больших количествах экспортироваться российское парусное полотно, в другие европейские страны увеличился экспорт чугуна и железа (потребление чугуна на внутрироссийском рынке также значительно возросло)^[8]

По новому протекционистскому тарифу 1767 г. был полностью запрещен импорт тех товаров, которые производились или могли производиться внутри России. Пошлины от 100 до 200 % накладывались на предметы роскоши, вино, зерно, игрушки… Экспортные пошлины составляли 10-23 % стоимости ввозимых товаров.

В 1773 году Россия экспортировала товаров на сумму 12 миллионов рублей, что на 2,7 миллионов рублей превышало импорт. В 1781 году экспорт уже составлял 23,7 миллионов рублей против 17,9 миллионов рублей импорта. Российские торговые суда начали плавать и в Средиземном море^[8]. Благодаря политике протекционизма в 1786 г. экспорт страны составил 67,7 млн руб., а импорт — 41,9 млн руб.

Вместе с тем, Россия при Екатерине пережила ряд финансовых кризисов и вынуждена была делать внешние займы, размер которых к концу правления императрицы превысил 200 миллионов рублей серебром.

Социальная политика

В 1768 году была создана сеть городских школ, основанных на классно-урочной системе. Активно стали открываться училища. При Екатерине началось системное развитие женского образования, в 1764 году были открыты Смольный институт благородных девиц, Воспитательное общество благородных девиц. Академия наук стала одной из ведущих в Европе научных баз. Были основаны обсерватория, физический кабинет, анатомический театр, ботанический сад, инструментальные мастерские, типография, библиотека, архив. В 1783 году основана Российская академия.

В губерниях были приказы общественного призрения. В Москве и Петербурге — Воспитательные дома для беспризорных детей (в настоящее время здания Московского Воспитательного дома занимает Военная академия им. Петра Великого), где они получали образование и воспитание. Для помощи вдовам была создана Вдовья казна.

Введено обязательное оспопрививание, причём Екатерина первой сделала такую прививку. При Екатерине II борьба с эпидемиями в России стала приобретать характер государственных мероприятий, непосредственно входивших в круг обязанностей императорского Совета, Сената. По указу Екатерины были созданы форпосты, размещенные не только на границах, но и на дорогах, ведущих в центр России. Был создан «Устав пограничных и портовых карантинов»^[9].

Развивались новые для России направления медицины: были открыты больницы для лечения сифилиса, психиатрические больницы и приюты. Издан ряд фундаментальных трудов по вопросам медицины.

Национальная политика

После присоединения к Российской империи земель, прежде бывших в составе Речи Посполитой, в России оказалось около миллиона евреев — народа с иной религией, культурой, укладом и бытом. Для недопущения их переселения в центральные области России и прикрепления к своим общинам для удобства взимания государственных налогов, Екатерина II в 1791 году установила черту оседлости, за пределами которой евреи не имели права проживать. Черта оседлости была установлена там же, где евреи и проживали до этого — на присоединённых в результате трёх разделов Польши землях, а также в степных областях у Чёрного моря и малонаселенных территориях к востоку от Днепра. Переход евреев в православие снимал все ограничения на проживание. Отмечается, что черта оседлости способствовала сохранению еврейской национальной самобытности, формированию особой еврейской идентичности в рамках Российской империи^[10].

В 1763—1764 году Екатериной были изданы два манифеста. Первый — «О дозволении всем иностранцам, в Россию въезжающим, поселяться в которых губерниях они пожелают и о дарованных им правах» призывал иностранных подданных переселяться в Россию, второй определял перечень льгот и привилегий переселенцам. Уже вскоре возникли первые немецкие поселения в Поволжье, отведённом для переселенцев. Наплыв немецких колонистов был столь велик, что уже в 1766 году пришлось временно приостановить приём новых переселенцев до обустройства уже въехавших. Создание колоний на Волге шло по нарастающей: в 1765 г. — 12 колоний, в 1766 г. — 21, в 1767 г. — 67. По данным переписи колонистов в 1769 г. в 105 колониях на Волге проживало 6,5 тысяч семей, что составляло 23,2 тыс. человек^[11]. В будущем немецкая община будет играть заметную роль в жизни России.

В состав страны к 1786 г. вошли Северное Причерноморье, Приазовье, Крым, Правобережная Украина, земли между Днестром и Бугом, Белоруссия, Курляндия и Литва.

Население России в 1747 г. составляло 18 млн чел., к концу века — 36 млн чел.

В 1726 г. в стране было 336 городов, к нач. XIX века — 634 города. В кон. XVIII века в городах проживало ок 10 % населения. В сельской местности 54 % — частновладельческих и 40 % — государственных

Законодательство о сословиях

21 апр. 1785 г. были изданы две грамоты: «Грамота на права, вольности и преимущества благородного дворянства» и «Жалованная грамота городам».

Обе грамоты регулировали законодательство о правах и обязанностях сословий.

Жалованная грамота дворянству:

• Подтверждались уже существующие права.
• дворянство освобождалось от подушной подати
• от расквартирования войсковых частей и команд
• от телесных наказаний
• от обязательной службы
• подтверждено право неограниченного распоряжения имением
• право владеть домами в городах
• право заводить в имениях предприятия и заниматься торговлей
• право собственности на недра земли
• право иметь свои сословные учреждения
  • изменилось наименование 1-ого сословия: не «дворянство», а «благородное дворянство».
  • запрещалось производить конфискацию имений дворян за уголовные преступления; имения надлежало передавать законным наследникам.
  • дворяне имеют исключительное право собственности на землю, но в «Грамоте» не говорится ни слова о монопольном праве иметь крепостных.
  • украинская старшина была уравнена с русскими дворянами.
    • дворянин, не имевший офицерского чина, лишался избирательного права.
    • занимать выборные должности могли только дворяне, чей доход от имений превышает 100 руб.

Грамота на права и выгоды городам Российской империи:

• подтверждено право верхушки купечества не платить подушной подати.
• замена рекрутской повинности денежным взносом.

Разделение городского населения на 6 разрядов:

1. дворяне, чиновники и духовенство («настоящие городские обыватели») — могут иметь в городах дома и землю, не занимаясь торговлей.
2. купцы всех трех гильдий (низший размер капитала для купцов 3-й гильдии — 1000 руб.)
3. ремесленники, записанные в цехи.
4. иностранные и иногородние купцы.
5. именитые граждане — купцы располагавшие капиталом свыше 50 тыс. руб., богатые банкиры (не менее 100 тыс. руб.), а также городская интеллигенция: архитекторы, живописцы, композиторы, ученые.
6. посадские, которые «промыслом, рукоделием и работою кормятся» (не имеющие недвижимой собственности в городе).

Представителей 3-его и 6-ого разрядов называли «мещанами» (слово пришло из польского языка через Украину и Белоруссию, обозначало первоначально «жителя города» или «горожанина», от слова «место» — город и «местечко» — городок).

Купцы 1 и 2-й гильдии и именитые граждане были освобождены от телесных наказаний. Представителям 3-его поколения именитых граждан разрешалось возбуждать ходатайство о присвоении дворянства.

Крепостное крестьянство:

• Указ 1763 г. возлагал содержание войсковых команд, присланных на подавление крестьянских выступлений, на самих крестьян.
• По указу 1765 г. за открытое неповиновение помещик мог отправить крестьянина не только в ссылку, но и на каторгу, причем срок каторжных работ устанавливался им самим; помещикам представлялось и право в любое время вернуть сосланного с каторги.
• Указ 1767 г. запрещал крестьянам жаловаться на своего барина; ослушникам грозила ссылка в Нерчинск (но обращатся в суд они могли),
• Крестьяне не могли принимать присягу, брать откупа и подряды.
• Широких размеров достигла торговля крестьянами: их продавали на рынках, в объявлениях на станицах газет; их проигрывали в карты, обменивали, дарили, насильно женили.
• Указ от 3 мая 1783 г. запрещал крестьянам Левобережной Украины и Слободской Украины переходить от одного владельца к другому.

Распространенное представление о раздаче Екатериной государственных крестьян помещикам, как ныне доказано, является мифом ^[12] (для раздачи использовались крестьяне с земель приобретенных при разделах Польши, а также дворцовые крестьяне). Зона крепостничества при Екатерине распространилась на Украину. Вместе с тем, было облегчено положение монастырских крестьян, которые были переведены в ведение Коллегии экономии вместе с землями. Все их повинности заменялись денежным оброком, что представляло крестьянам больше самостоятельности и развивало их хозяйственную инициативу. В результате прекратились волнения монастырских крестьян.

Духовенство лишилось автономного существования вследствие секуляризации церковных земель (1764), дававших возможность существования без помощи государства и независимо от него. После реформы духовенство стало зависимо от финансировавшего его государства.

Религиозная политика

В целом в России при Екатерине II проводилась политика религиозной терпимости. Представители всех традиционных религий не испытывали давления и притеснения. Так, в 1773 г. издаётся закон о терпимости всех вероисповеданий, запрещающий православному духовенству вмешиваться в дела других конфессий^[13]; светская власть оставляет за собой право решать вопрос об учреждении храмов любой веры^[14].

Вступив на престол Екатерина отменила указ Петра III о секуляризации земель у церкви. Но уже в февр. 1764 г. вновь издала указ о лишении Церкви земельной собственности. Монастырские крестьяне числом ок 2 млн чел. обоего пола были изъяты из ведения духовенства и переданы в управление Коллегии экономии. В ведении государства вошли вотчины церквей, монастырей и архиереев.

На Украине секуляризация монастырских владений была проведена в 1786 г.

Тем самым духовенство попадало в зависимость от светской власти, так как не могло осуществлять самостоятельную экономическую деятельность.

Екатерина добилась от правительства Речи Посполитой уравнения в правах религиозных меньшинств — православных и протестантов.

При Екатерине II прекратились преследования старообрядцев. Императрица выступила инициатором возвращения из-за границы старообрядцев, экономически активного населения. Им было специально отведено место на Иргизе (современные Саратовская и Самарская области)^[15]. Им было разрешено иметь священников^[16].

Свободное переселение немцев в Россию привело к существенному увеличению числа протестантов (в основном лютеран) в России. Им также дозволялось строить кирхи, школы, свободно совершать богослужения. В конце XVIII века только в одном Петербурге насчитывалось более 20 тыс. лютеран.

За иудейской религией сохранялось право на публичное отправление веры. Религиозные дела и споры были оставлены в ведении еврейских судов.

По указу Екатерины II в 1787 г. в типографии Академии наук в Петербурге впервые в России был напечатан полный арабский текст исламской священной книги Корана для бесплатной раздачи «киргизам». Издание существенно отличалось от европейских прежде всего тем, что носило мусульманский характер: текст к печати был подготовлен муллой Усманом Ибрахимом. В Петербурге с 1789 по 1798 г. вышло 5 изданий Корана. В 1788 году был выпущен манифест, в котором императрица повелевала «учредить в Уфе духовное собрание Магометанского закона, которое имеет в ведомстве своем всех духовных чинов того закона, … исключая Таврической области»^[17]. Таким образом, Екатерина начала встраивать мусульманское сообщество в систему государственного устройства империи. Мусульмане получали право строить и восстанавливать мечети.

Буддизм также получил государственную поддержку в регионах, где он традиционно исповедовался. В 1764 году Екатерина учредила пост хабо-ламы — главы буддистов Восточной Сибири и Забайкалья^[18]. В 1766 бурятские ламы признали Екатерину воплощением Белой Тары за благожелательность к буддизму и гуманное правление.

Внутриполитические проблемы

На момент взошествия на престол Екатерины II продолжал оставаться в живых в заключении в Шлиссельбургской крепости бывший российский император Иван VI. В 1764 году подпоручик В. Я. Мирович, несший караульную службу в Шлиссельбургской крепости, склонил на свою сторону часть гарнизона, чтобы освободить Ивана. Стражники, однако, в соотвествие с данными им инструкциями закололи узника, а сам Мирович был арестован и казнён.

В 1771 году в Москве произошла крупная эпидемия чумы, осложнённая народными волнениями в Москве, получившими название Чумной бунт. Восставшие разгромили Чудов монастырь в Кремле. На другой день толпа взяла приступом Донской монастырь, убила скрывавшегося в нем архиепископа Амвросия, принялась громить карантинные заставы и дома знати. На подавление восстания были направлены войска под командованием Г. Г. Орлова. После трехдневных боев бунт был подавлен.

Крестьянская война 1773—1775 годов

В 1773—1774 году произошло крестьянское восстание во главе с Емельяном Пугачёвым. Оно охватило земли Яицкого войска, Оренбургской губернии, Урал, Прикамье, Башкирию, часть Западной Сибири, Среднее и Нижнее Поволжье. В ходе восстания к казакам присоединились башкиры, татары, казахи, уральские заводские рабочие и многочисленные крепостные крестьяне всех губерний, где разворачивались военные действия. После подавления восстания были свёрнуты некоторые либеральные реформы и усилился консерватизм.

Основные этапы:

• сент. 1773 — март 1774
• март 1774 — июль 1774
• июль 1774—1775

17 сент. 1773 г. начинается восстание. Возле Яицкого городка на сторону 200 казаков переходят правительственные отряды, шедшие подавить мятеж. Не взяв городка восставшие идут к Оренбургу.

5 окт. — 22 марта 1773—1774 гг. — стояние под стенами Оренбурга.

Март — июль 1774 г. — восставшие захватывают заводы Урала и Башкирии. Под Троицкой крепостью восставшие терпят поражение. 12 июля захватывают Казань. 17 июля вновь терпят поражение и отступают на правый берег Волги.

12 сент. 1774 г. Пугачева схватили.

Масонство, Дело Новикова, Дело Радищева

Внешняя политика России в царствование Екатерины II

Внешняя политика Российского государства при Екатерине была направлена на укрепление роли России в мире и расширение её территории. Девиз её дипломатии заключался в следующем: «нужно быть в дружбе со всеми державами, чтобы всегда сохранять возможность стать на сторону более слабого… сохранять себе свободные руки… ни за кем хвостом не тащиться»^[19].

Расширение пределов Российской империи

Разделы Польши

В состав федеративного государства Речь Посполитая входили Польша, Литва, Украина и Белоруссия.

Поводом для вмешательства в дела Речи Посполитой послужил вопрос о положении диссидентов (то есть некатолического меньшинства — православных и протестантов), чтобы те были уравнены с правами католиков. Екатерина оказывала сильное давление на шляхту с целью избрания на польский престол своего ставленника Станислава Августа Понятовского, который и был избран. Часть польской шляхты выступила против этих решений и организовала восстание, поднятое в Барской конфедерации. Оно было подавлено русскими войсками в союзе с польским королём. В 1772 году Пруссия и Австрия, опасаясь усиления российского влияния в Польше и её успехами в войне с Османской империей(Турция), предложили Екатерине провести раздел Речи Посполитой в обмен на прекращение войны, угрожая в противном случае войной против России. Россия, Австрия и Пруссия ввели свои войска.

В 1772 г. состоялся 1-ый раздел Речи Посполитой. Австрия получила всю Галицию с округами, Пруссия — Западную Пруссию (Поморье), Россия — восточную часть Белоруссии до Минска (губернии Витебская и Могилевская) и часть латвийских земель, входивших ранее в Ливонию.

Польский сейм был вынужден согласиться с разделом и отказаться от претензий на утраченные территории: ей было потеряно 3800 км² с населением в 4 млн человек.

Польские дворяне и промышленники содействовали принятию Конституции 1791 г. консервативная часть населения Тарговицкой конфедерации обратилась к России за помощью.

В 1793 г. состоялся 2-ой раздел Речи Посполитой, утверждённый на Гродненском сейме. Пруссия получила Гданьск, Торунь, Познань (часть земель по р. Варта и Висла), Россия — Центральную Белоруссию с Минском и Правобережную Украину.

В марте 1794 началось восстание под руководством Тадеуша Костюшко, целями которого было восстановление территориальной целостности, суверенитета и Конституции 3 мая, однако весной того же года оно было подавлено русской армией под командованием А. В. Суворова.

В 1795 г. состоялся 3-ий раздел Польши. Австрия получила Южную Польшу с Любаном и Краковом, Пруссия — Центральную Польшу с Варшавой, Россия — Литву, Курляндию, Волынь и Западную Белоруссию.

13 окт. 1795 г. — конференция трех держав о падении польского государства, оно потеряло государственность и суверенитет.

Русско-турецкие войны. Присоединение Крыма

Важным направлением внешней политики Екатерины || являлись также территории Крыма, Причерноморья и Северного Кавказа, находившиеся под турецким владычеством.

Когда вспыхнуло восстание Барской конфедерации, турецкий султан объявил войну России (Русско-турецкая война 1768—1774), используя как предлог то, что один из русских отрядов, преследуя поляков, вошёл на территорию Османской империи. Русские войска разбили конфедератов и стали одерживать одну за другой победы на юге. Добившись успеха в ряде сухопутных и морских битв (Сражение при Козлуджи, сражении при Рябой Могиле, Кагульское сражение, Ларгаское сражение, Чесменское сражение и др.), Россия заставила Турцию подписать Кючук-Кайнарджийский договор, в результате которого Крымское ханство формально обрело независимость, но де-факто стало зависеть от России. Турция выплатила России военные контрибуции в порядке 4,5 миллионов рублей, а также уступила северное побережье Чёрного моря вместе с двумя важными портами.

После окончания русско-турецкой войны 1768—1774, политика России в отношении Крымского ханства была направлена на установление в нём пророссийского правителя и присоединении к России. Под давлением русской дипломатии ханом был избран Шахин Гирей. Предыдущий хан — ставленник Турции Девлет IV Гирей — в начале 1777 года попытался оказать сопротивление, но оно было подавлено А. В. Суворовым, Девлет IV бежал в Турцию. Одновременно была недопущена высадка турецкого десанта в Крыму и тем самым предотвращена попытка развязывания новой войны, после чего Турция признала Шахина Гирея ханом. В 1782 году против него вспыхнуло восстание, которое подавили введённые на полуостров русские войска, а в 1783 году манифестом Екатерины II Крымское ханство было присоединено к России.

После победы императрица вместе с австрийским императором Иосифом II совершила триумфальную поездку по Крыму.

Следующая война с Турцией произошла в 1787—1792 годах и являлась безуспешной попыткой Османской империи вернуть себе земли, отошедшие к России в ходе Русско-турецкой войны 1768—1774, в том числе и Крым. Здесь также русские одержали ряд важнейших побед, как сухопутных — Кинбурнская баталия, Сражение при Рымнике, взятие Очакова, взятие Измаила, сражение под Фокшанами, отбиты походы турок на Бендеры и Аккерман и др., так и морских — сражение у Фидониси (1788), в Керченском морском сражении 1790, у Тендры (1790) и у мыса Калиакрия (1791). В итоге Османская империя в 1792 году была вынуждена подписать Ясский мирный договор, закрепляющий Крым и Очаков за Россией, а также отодвигавший границу между двумя империями до Днестра.

Войны с Турцией ознаменовались крупными военными победами Румянцева, Суворова, Потемкина, Кутузова, Ушакова, утверждением России на Чёрном море. В результате их к России отошло Северное Причерноморье, Крым, Прикубанье, усилились её политические позиции на Кавказе и Балканах, укреплён авторитет России на мировой арене.

Отношения с Грузией. Георгиевский трактат

Екатерина II и грузинский царь Ираклий II в 1783 году заключили Георгиевский трактат, по которому Россия установила протекторат над Картли-Кахетинским царством. Договор был заключён в целях защиты православных грузин, поскольку мусульманские Иран и Турция угрожали национальному существованию Грузии. Российское правительство принимало Восточную Грузию под свое покровительство, гарантировало её автономию и защиту в случае войны, а при ведении мирных переговоров обязывалось настаивать на возвращении Картли-Кахетинскому царству владений, издавна ему принадлежавших, и незаконно отторгнутых Турцией.

Когда в 1795 году в Грузию вторглась персидская армия и разграбила Тбилиси, русские войска начали против неё боевые действия и, защищая грузин, в апреле 1796 года, взяли штурмом Дербент и подавили сопротивление персов на территории современного Азербайджана, включая крупные города (Баку, Шемаха, Ганджа).

Результатом грузинской политики Екатерины II было резкое ослабление позиций Ирана и Турции, формально уничтожившее их притязания на Восточную Грузию.

Отношения со Швецией

Пользуясь тем, что Россия вступила в войну с Турцией, Швеция, поддержанная Пруссией, Англией и Голландией развязала с ней войну за возвращение ранее утерянных территорий. Вступившие на территорию России войска были остановлены генерал-аншефом В. П. Мусиным-Пушкиным. После ряда морских сражений, не имевших решительного исхода, Россия разгромила линейный флот шведов в сражении под Выборгом, но из за налетевшего шторма потерпела тяжелое поражение в сражении гребных флотов при Роченсальме. Стороны подписали в 1790 году Верельский мирный договор, по которому граница между странами не изменилась.

Отношения с другими странами

В 1764 году нормализовались отношения между Россией и Пруссией и между странами был заключён союзный договор. Этот договор послужил основой образованию Северной системы — союзу России, Пруссии, Англии, Швеции, Дании и Речи Посполитой против Франции и Австрии. Русско-прусско-австрийское сотрудничество продолжилось и далее.

В третьей четверти XVIII в. шла борьба североамериканских колоний за независимость от Англии — буржуазная революция привела к созданию США. В 1780 г. русское правительство приняло «Декларацию о вооруженном нейтралитете», поддержанную большинством европейских стран (суда нейтральных стран имели право вооруженной защиты при нападении на них флота воюющей страны).

В европейских делах роль России возросла во время австро-прусской войны 1778—1779 годов, когда она выступила посредницей между воюющими сторонами на Тешенском конгрессе, где Екатерина по существу продиктовала свои условия примирения, восстанавливавшие равновесие в Европе^[20]. После этого Россия часто выступала арбитром в спорах между германскими государствами, которые обращались за посредничеством непосредственно к Екатерине.

Одним из грандиозных планов Екатерины на внешнеполитической арене стал так называемый Греческий проект^[21] — совместные планы России и Австрии по разделу турецких земель, изгнанию турок из Европы, возрождению Византийской империи и провозглашение её императором внука Екатерины — великого князя Константина Павловича. Согласно планам, на месте Бессарабии, Молдавии и Валахии создаётся буферное государство Дакия, а западная часть Балканского полуострова передаётся Австрии. Проект был разработан в начале 1780-х годов, однако осуществлён не был из-за противоречий союзников и отвоевания Россией значительных турецких территорий самостоятельно.

В октябре 1782 года подписан Договор о дружбе и торговле с Данией.

После Французской революции Екатерина выступила одним из инициаторов антифранцузской коалициии и установления принципа легитимизма. Она говорила: «Ослабление монархической власти во Франции подвергает опасности все другие монархии. С моей стороны я готова воспротивиться всеми силами. Пора действовать и приняться за оружие»^[22]. Однако в реальности она устранилась от участия в боевых действиях против Франции. По распространённому мнению, одной из действительных причин создания антифранцузской коалиции было отвлечение внимания Пруссии и Австрии от польских дел^[23]. Вместе с тем, Екатерина отказалась от всех заключённых с Францией договоров, приказала высылать всех подозреваемых в симпатиях к Французской революции из России, а в 1790 году выпустила указ о возвращении из Франции всех русских.

В царствование Екатерины Российская империя обрела статус «великой державы». В результате двух успешных для России русско-турецких войн 1768—1774 и 1787—1791 гг. к России был присоединен Крымский полуостров и вся территория Северного Причерноморья. В 1772—1795 гг. Россиия приняла участие в трех разделах Речи Посполитной, в результате которых присоединила к себе территории нынешней Белоруссии, Западной Украины, Литвы и Курляндии. В состав Российской империи вошла и Русская Америка — Аляска и Западное побережье Североамериканского континента (нынешний штат Калифорния).

Екатерина II как деятель Эпохи Просвещения

Екатерина — литератор и издатель

Екатерина принадлежала к немногочисленному числу монархов, которые столь интенсивно и непосредственно общались бы со своими подданными путём составления манифестов, инструкций, законов, полемических статей и косвенно в виде сатирических сочинений, исторических драм и педагогических опусов. В своих мемуарах она признавалась: «Я не могу видеть чистого пера без того, чтобы не испытывать желания немедленно окунуть его в чернила».

Она обладала незаурядным талантом литератора, оставив после себя большое собрание сочинений — записки, переводы, либретто, басни, сказки, комедии «О, время!», «Именины госпожи Ворчалкиной», «Передняя знатного боярина», «Госпожа Вестникова с семьею», «Невеста невидимка» (1771—1772), эссе и т. п., участвовала в еженедельном сатирическом журнале «Всякая всячина», издававшемся с 1769 г. Императрица обратилась к журналистике с целью воздействия на общественное мнение, поэтому главной идеей журнала была критика человеческих пороков и слабостей. Другими предметами иронии были суеверия населения. Сама Екатерина называла журнал: «Сатира в улыбательном духе».

Екатерина — меценат и коллекционер

Развитие культуры и искусства

Екатерина считала себя «философом на троне» и благосклонно относилась к европейскому Просвещению, состояла в переписке с Вольтером, Дидро, д’Аламбером.

При ней в Санкт-Петербурге появились Эрмитаж и Публичная библиотека. Она покровительствовала различным областям искусства — архитектуре, музыке, живописи.

Нельзя не упомянуть и о инициированном Екатериной массовом заселении немецких семей в различные регионы современной России, Украины, а также стран Прибалтики. Целью являлось «инфицирование» русской науки и культуры европейскими.

Двор времён Екатерины II

Особенности личной жизни

Екатерина была брюнеткой среднего роста. Она совмещала в себе высокий интеллект, образованность, государственную мудрость и приверженность к «свободной любви».

Екатерина известна своими связями с многочисленными любовниками, число которых (по списку авторитетного екатериноведа П. И. Бартенева) достигает 23. Самыми известными из них были Сергей Салтыков, Г. Г. Орлов (впоследствии граф), конной гвардии поручик Васильчиков, Г. А. Потёмкин (впоследствии князь), гусар Зорич, Ланской, последним фаворитом был корнет Платон Зубов, ставший графом Российской империи и генералом. С Потёмкиным, по некоторым данным, Екатерина была тайно обвенчана (1775). После 1762 она планировала брак с Орловым, однако по советам приближённых отказалась от этой идеи.

Стоит отметить, что «разврат» Екатерины был не таким уж скандальным явлением на фоне общей распущенности нравов XVIII столетия. Большинство королей (за исключением, пожалуй, Фридриха Великого, Людовика XVI и Карла XII) имели многочисленных любовниц. Фавориты Екатерины (за исключением Потёмкина, обладавшего государственными способностями) не оказывали влияния на политику. Тем не менее институт фаворитизма отрицательно действовал на высшее дворянство, которое искало выгод через лесть новому фавориту, пыталось провести в любовники к государыне «своего человека» и т. п.

У Екатерины было двое сыновей: Павел Петрович (1754) (подозревают, что его отцом был Сергей Салтыков) и Алексей Бобринский (1762 — сын Григория Орлова) и две дочери: умершая во младенчестве великая княжна Анна Петровна (1757—1759, возможно, дочь будущего короля Польши Станислава Понятовского) и Елизавета Григорьевна Тёмкина (1775 — дочь Потёмкина).

Знаменитые деятели екатерининской эпохи

Правление Екатерины II характеризовалась плодотворной деятельностью выдающихся русских учёных, дипломатов, военных, государственных деятелей, деятелей культуры и искусства. В 1873 году в Санкт-Петербурге в сквере перед Александринским театром (ныне площадь Островского) был установлен внушительный многофигурный памятник Екатерине, выполненный по проекту М. О. Микешина скульпторами А. М. Опекушиным и М. А. Чижовым и архитекторами В. А. Шретером и Д. И. Гриммом. Подножье монумента состоит из скульптурной композиции, персонажи которой — выдающиеся личности екатерининской эпохи и сподвижники императрицы:

• Григорий Александрович Потёмкин-Таврический
• Александр Васильевич Суворов
• Петр Александрович Румянцев
• Александр Андреевич Безбородко
• Иван Иванович Бецкой
• Василий Яковлевич Чичагов
• Алексей Григорьевич Орлов
• Гавриил Романович Державин
• Екатерина Романовна Воронцова-Дашкова

События последних лет царствования Александра II — в частности, Русско-турецкая война 1877—1878 — помешали осуществлению замысла расширения мемориала Екатерининской эпохи. Д. И. Гримм разработал проект сооружения в сквере рядом с памятником Екатерине II бронзовых статуй и бюстов, изображающих деятелей славного царствования. Согласно окончательному списку, утвержденному за год до смерти Александра II, рядом с памятником Екатерине должны были разместиться шесть бронзовых скульптур и двадцать три бюста на гранитных постаментах.

В рост должны были быть изображены: граф Н. И. Панин, адмирал Г. А. Спиридов, писатель Д. И. Фонвизин, генерал-прокурор Сената князь А. А. Вяземский, фельдмаршал князь Н. В. Репнин и генерал А. И. Бибиков, бывший председателем Комиссии по уложению. В бюстах — издатель и журналист Н. И. Новиков, путешественник П. С. Паллас, драматург А. П. Сумароков, историки И. Н. Болтин и князь М. М. Щербатов, художники Д. Г. Левицкий и В. Л. Боровиковский, архитектор А. Ф. Кокоринов, фаворит Екатерины II граф Г. Г. Орлов, адмиралы Ф. Ф. Ушаков, С. К. Грейг, А. И. Круз, военачальники: граф З. Г. Чернышёв, князь В. М. Долгоруков-Крымский, граф И. Е. Ферзен, граф В. А. Зубов; московский генерал-губернатор князь М. Н. Волконский, новгородский губернатор граф Я. Е. Сиверс, дипломат Я. И. Булгаков, усмиритель «чумного бунта» 1771 года в Москве П. Д. Еропкин, подавившие пугачевский бунт граф П. И. Панин и И. И. Михельсон, герой взятия крепости Очаков И. И. Меллер-Закомельский.

Кроме перечисленных, отмечают таких известных деятелей эпохи, как:

• Михаил Васильевич Ломоносов
• Леонард Эйлер
• Джакомо Кваренги
• Василий Баженов
• Жан Батист Валлен-Деламот
• Н. А. Львов
• Иван Кулибин
• Матвей Казаков

Екатерина в искусстве

В кино

• «Catherine the Great», 2005. В роли Екатерины — Эмили Брун
• «Золотой век», 2003. В роли Екатерины — Вия Артмане
• «Русский ковчег», 2002. В роли Екатерины — Мария Кузнецова, Наталья Никуленко
• «Русский бунт», 2000. В роли Екатерины — Ольга Антонова
• «Catherine the Great», 1995. В роли Екатерины — Кэтрин Зета-Джонс
• «Молодая Екатерина» («Young Catherine»), 1991. В роли Екатерины — Джулия Ормонд
• «Виват, гардемарины!», 1991. В роли Екатерины — Кристина Орбакайте
• «Царская охота», 1990. В роли Екатерины — Светлана Крючкова.

звёзды черно-белого кино:

• «Great Catherine», 1968. В роли Екатерины — Жанна Моро
• «Вечера на хуторе близ Диканьки», 1961. В роли Екатерины — Зоя Василькова.
• «John Paul Jones», 1959. В роли Екатерины — Бэтт Дэвис
• «Корабли штурмуют бастионы», 1953. В роли Екатерины — Ольга Жизнева.
• «A Royal Scandal», 1945. В роли Екатерины — Таллула Бэнкхэд.
• «The Scarlet Empress», 1934. Гл. роль — Марлен Дитрих
• «Forbidden Paradise», 1924. В роли Екатерины — Пола Негри

В театре

• «Екатерина Великая. Музыкальные хроники времен империи», 2008. В роли Екатерины — народная артистка России Нина Шамбер

В литературе

• Б. Шоу. «Великая Екатерина»
• В. Н. Иванов. «Императрица Фике»
• В. С. Пикуль. «Фаворит»
• В. С. Пикуль. «Пером и шпагой»
• Борис Акунин. «Внеклассное чтение»
• Василий Аксёнов. «Вольтерьянцы и вольтерьянки»
• А. С. Пушкин. «Капитанская дочка»
• Анри Труайя. «Екатерина Великая»

В изобразительном искусстве

Портрет работы Лампи Старшего, 1793

Память

В 1778 году она составила для себя следующую эпитафию:

На Русский трон взойдя, желала она добра
И сильно желала дать своим подданным Счастье,Свободу и Благополучие.
Она легко прощала и никого не лишала свободы.
Она была снисходительна, не усложняла себе жизнь и была веселого нрава
Имела республиканскую душу и доброе сердце. У неё были друзья.
Работа была для неё легка, дружба и искусства несли ей радость.

Jan von Flocken— Katharina II- Verlag Neues Leben GmbH,Berlin,1991. ISBN 3-355-01215-7

Памятники

• В 1873 году памятник Екатерине II открыт на Александринской площади в Санкт-Петербурге (см. раздел Знаменитые деятели екатерининской эпохи)
• 8 сентября 2006 года памятник Екатерине II открыт в Краснодаре
• 27 октября 2007 года памятники Екатерине II были открыты в Одессе и Тирасполе
• 15 мая 2008 года открыт памятник Екатерине II в Севастополе^[24]

См. также

• Русско-турецкие войны
• Территориальная экспансия России
• Дворцово-парковый ансамбль Царицыно
• Петербуржцы в Вальхалле

Ссылки

• Екатерина II. Вольное, но слабое переложение из Шакеспира, комедия Вот каково иметь корзину и белье
• Екатерина II Великая. История России екатерининской эпохи
• Мемуары Екатерины II
• Предки императрицы Екатерины II Великой
• Эпоха правления Екатерины II
• Сочинения Екатерины II на сайте Lib.ru: Классика

Литература

• Борзаковский П. К. «Императрица Екатерина Вторая Великая». — М.: Панорама, 1991. — 48 с.
• Брикнер А. Г. История Екатерины II. — М.: Современник, 1991.
• «Екатерина II и ее время: Современный взгляд». Философский век, альманах. № 11. СПб., 1999 (ideashistory.org.ru)
• Заичкин И. А., Почкаев И. Н. Русская история: От Екатерины Великой до Александра II. — М.: Мысль, 1994.
• Исабель де Мадариага. Россия в эпоху Екатерины Великой. М., 2002. 976 с — ISBN 5-86793-182-Х
• История России: В 2 т. Т. 1: С древнейших времен до конца XVIII в. / А. Н. Сахаров, Л. Е. Морозова, М. А. Рахматуллин и др.; Под редакцией А. Н. Сахарова. — М.: ООО «Издательство АСТ»: ЗАО НПП «Ермак»: ООО «Издательство Астрель», 2003. — 943 с.
• Каменский А. Б. Жизнь и судьба императрицы Екатерины Великой. М., 1997.
• Каменский А. Б. «Под сению Екатерины…»: Вторая половина XVIII века. СПб., 1992.
• Ключевский В. О. «Курс Русской Истории», часть V. — М.: Государственное Социально-Экономическое Издательство, 1937.
• Омельченко О. А. «Законная монархия» Екатерины Второй. М., 1993.
• Павленко Н. И. «Екатерина Великая». — М.: Мол. гвардия, 2000.
• Россия и Романовы: Россия под скипетром Романовых. Очерки из русской истории за время с 1613 по 1913 год / под.ред. П. Н. Жуковича. — М.: Россия; Ростов-на-Дону: Танаис, 1992 г.
• Улюра А. А. Исторические драмы Екатерины II «в подражание Шекспиру»

Примечания

Эпоха Просвещения
Выдающиеся люди эпохи по странам
Австрия	Иосиф II | Леопольд II | Мария Терезия
Франция	Пьер Бейль | Фонтенель | Шарль Луи Монтескьё | Франсуа Кёне | Вольтер | Жорж Луи Леклерк де Бюффон | Жан Жак Руссо | Дени Дидро | Гельвеций | Жан Д’Аламбер | Гольбах | Маркиз де Сад | Кондорсе | Лавуазье | Олимпия де Гугес | см. также: Французские энциклопедисты
Германия	Эрхард Вейгель | Готфрид Лейбниц | Фридрих II | Иммануил Кант | Готхольд Эфраим Лессинг | Томас Аббт | Иоганн Готфрид Гердер | Адам Вейсгаупт | Иоганн Вольфганг Гёте | Фридрих Шиллер | Карл Фридрих Гаусс | Мозес Мендельсон
Великобритания	Томас Гоббс | Джон Локк | Исаак Ньютон | Джозеф Аддисон | Ричард Стил | Сэмюэл Джонсон | Давид Юм | Адам Смит | Джон Уилкс | Эдмунд Бёрк | Эдуард Гиббон | Джеймс Босуэлл | Джереми Бентам | Мэри Уолстонкрафт | см. также: Шотландское Просвещение
Италия	Джамбаттиста Вико | Чезаре Беккариа
Нидерланды	Гуго Гроций | Бенедикт Спиноза
Польша	Станислав Конарский | Станислав Август Понятовский | Игнацы Красицкий | Гуго Коллонтай | Игнацы Потоцкий | Станислав Сташиц | Ян Снядецкий | Юлиан Урсын Немцевич | Анджей Снядецкий
Россия	Пётр I | Екатерина II | Екатерина Дашкова | Антиох Кантемир | Михаил Ломоносов | Николай Новиков | Александр Радищев | Иван Бецкой | Иван Шувалов | Михаил Щербатов
Испания	Гаспар Мельчор де Ховельянос | Николас Фернандес Моратин
США	Бенджамин Франклин | Дэвид Риттенхаус | Джон Адамс | Томас Пейн | Томас Джефферсон
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Catherine the Great
Portrait by Alexander Roslin, c. 1780s
Empress regnant of Russia
Reign	9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796
Coronation	22 September 1762
Predecessor	Peter III
Successor	Paul I
Empress consort of Russia
Tenure	5 January – 9 July 1762
Born	Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst 2 May [O.S. 21 April] 1729 Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia, Holy Roman Empire (now Szczecin, Poland)
Died	17 November [O.S. 6 November] 1796 (aged 67) Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Burial	Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
Spouse	Peter III of Russia ​ ​ (m. 1745; died 1762)​
Issue among others…	Paul I of Russia Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna Alexei, Count Bobrinsky
Names German: Sophie Friederike Auguste Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Романова, romanized: Yekaterina Alekseyevna Romanova English: Catherine Alexeievna Romanova
House	Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov (by marriage) Ascania (by birth)
Father	Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst
Mother	Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
Religion	Russian Orthodox (1744–1796) prev. Lutheran (1729–1744)
Signature

Catherine II^[a] (born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796),^[b] most commonly known as Catherine the Great,^[c] was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power following the overthrow of her husband, Peter III. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, and theatres; along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe, and the recognition of Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.

In her accession to power and her rule of the empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Count Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin. Assisted by highly successful generals such as Alexander Suvorov and Pyotr Rumyantsev, and admirals such as Samuel Greig and Fyodor Ushakov, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, the Crimean Khanate was crushed following victories over the Bar Confederation and Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. With the support of Great Britain, Russia colonised the territories of New Russia along the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. In the west, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled by Catherine’s former lover King Stanisław August Poniatowski, was eventually partitioned, with the Russian Empire gaining the largest share. In the east, Russians became the first Europeans to colonise Alaska, establishing Russian America.

Many cities and towns were founded on Catherine’s orders in the newly conquered lands, most notably Odessa, Yekaterinoslav (to-day known as Dnipro), Kherson, Nikolayev, and Sevastopol. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the economy continued to depend on serfdom, and the increasing demands of the state and of private landowners intensified the exploitation of serf labour. This was one of the chief reasons behind rebellions, including Pugachev’s Rebellion of Cossacks, nomads, peoples of the Volga, and peasants.

The period of Catherine the Great’s rule is also known as the Catherinian Era.^[1] The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the empress, changed the face of the country. She is often included in the ranks of the enlightened despots.^[d] As a patron of the arts, she presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, including the establishment of the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe.

Early life[edit]

Catherine was born in Stettin, Province of Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia, Holy Roman Empire, as Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg. Her mother was Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. Her father, Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, belonged to the ruling German family of Anhalt.^[3] He failed to become the duke of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and at the time of his daughter’s birth held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. However, because her second cousin Peter III converted to Orthodox Christianity, her mother’s brother became the heir to the Swedish throne^[4] and two of her first cousins, Gustav III and Charles XIII, later became Kings of Sweden.^[5] In accordance with the custom then prevailing in the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. According to her memoirs, Sophie was regarded as a tomboy, and trained herself to master a sword.

Sophie’s childhood was very uneventful. She once wrote to her correspondent Baron Grimm: «I see nothing of interest in it.»^[6] Although Sophie was born a princess, her family had very little money. Her rise to power was supported by her mother Joanna’s wealthy relatives, who were both nobles and royal relations.^[4] The more than 300 sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire, many of them quite small and powerless, made for a highly competitive political system as the various princely families fought for advantage over each other, often via political marriages.^[7] For the smaller German princely families, an advantageous marriage was one of the best means of advancing their interests, and the young Sophie was groomed throughout her childhood to be the wife of some powerful ruler in order to improve the position of the reigning house of Anhalt. Besides her native German, Sophie became fluent in French, the lingua franca of European elites in the 18th century.^[8] The young Sophie received the standard education for an 18th-century German princess, with a concentration upon learning the etiquette expected of a lady, French, and Lutheran theology.^[9]

Sophie first met her future husband, who would become Peter III of Russia, at the age of 10. Peter was her second cousin. Based on her writings, she found Peter detestable upon meeting him. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol at such a young age. Peter also still played with toy soldiers. She later wrote that she stayed at one end of the castle, and Peter at the other.^[10]

Marriage and reign of Peter III[edit]

The choice of Princess Sophie as wife of the future tsar was one result of the Lopukhina affair in which Count Jean Armand de Lestocq and King Frederick the Great of Prussia took an active part. The objective was to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of Austria, and to overthrow the chancellor Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin, a known partisan of the Austrian alliance on whom Russian Empress Elizabeth relied. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophie’s mother, Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. Historical accounts portray Joanna as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Her hunger for fame centred on her daughter’s prospects of becoming empress of Russia, but she infuriated Empress Elizabeth, who eventually banned her from the country for spying for King Frederick. Empress Elizabeth knew the family well and had intended to marry Princess Joanna’s brother Charles Augustus (Karl August von Holstein); however, he died of smallpox in 1727 before the wedding could take place.^[11] Despite Joanna’s interference, Empress Elizabeth took a strong liking to Sophie, and Sophie and Peter eventually married in 1745.

When Sophie arrived in Russia in 1744, she spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with Empress Elizabeth but with her husband and with the Russian people as well. She applied herself to learning the Russian language with zeal, rising at night and walking about her bedroom barefoot, repeating her lessons. When she wrote her memoirs, she said she made the decision then to do whatever was necessary and to profess to believe whatever was required of her to become qualified to wear the crown. Although she mastered the language, she retained an accent.

Sophie recalled in her memoirs that as soon as she arrived in Russia, she fell ill with a pleuritis that almost killed her. She credited her survival to frequent bloodletting; in a single day, she had four phlebotomies. Her mother’s opposition to this practice brought her the empress’s disfavour. When Sophie’s situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran pastor. Awaking from her delirium, however, Sophie said, «I don’t want any Lutheran; I want my Orthodox father [clergyman]». This raised her in the empress’s esteem.

Princess Sophie’s father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter’s conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy. Despite his objections, on 28 June 1744, the Russian Orthodox Church received Princess Sophie as a member with the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) patronymic Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey), so that she was in all respects the namesake of Catherine I, the mother of Elizabeth and the grandmother of Peter III. On the following day, the formal betrothal of Catherine and Peter took place and the long-planned dynastic marriage finally occurred on 21 August 1745 in Saint Petersburg. Sophie had turned 16. Her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. The bridegroom, known as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (located in the north-west of present-day Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of Oranienbaum, which remained the residence of the «young court» for many years. From there, they governed the duchy (which occupied less than a third of the current German state of Schleswig-Holstein, even including that part of Schleswig occupied by Denmark) to obtain experience to govern Russia.

Apart from providing that experience, the marriage was unsuccessful—it was not consummated for years due to Peter III’s mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups that opposed her husband. Bored with her husband, Catherine became an avid reader of books, mostly in French.^[12] She disparaged her husband for his devotion to reading on the one hand «Lutheran prayer-books, the other the history of and trial of some highway robbers who had been hanged or broken on the wheel».^[9] It was during this period that she first read Voltaire and the other philosophes of the French Enlightenment. As she learned Russian, she became increasingly interested in the literature of her adopted country. Finally, it was the Annals by Tacitus that caused what she called a «revolution» in her teenage mind as Tacitus was the first intellectual she read who understood power politics as they are, not as they should be. She was especially impressed with his argument that people do not act for their professed idealistic reasons, and instead she learned to look for the «hidden and interested motives».^[13]

According to Alexander Hertzen, who edited a version of Catherine’s memoirs, Catherine had her first sexual relationship with Sergei Saltykov while living at Oranienbaum as her marriage to Peter had not been consummated, as Catherine later claimed.^[14][15] Catherine nonetheless left the final version of her memoirs to Paul I in which she explained why Paul had been Peter’s son. Sergei Saltykov was used to make Peter jealous, and relations with Saltykov were platonic. Catherine wanted to become an empress herself and did not want another heir to the throne; however, Empress Elizabeth blackmailed Peter and Catherine to produce this heir. Peter and Catherine had both been involved in a 1749 Russian military plot to crown Peter (together with Catherine) in Elizabeth’s stead. As a result of this plot, Elizabeth likely wanted to leave both Catherine and her accomplice Peter without any rights to the Russian throne. Elizabeth therefore allowed Catherine to have sexual lovers only after a new legal heir, Catherine and Peter’s son, survived and appeared to be strong.^[16]

After this, Catherine carried on sexual liaisons over the years with many men, including Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (1734–1783), Alexander Vasilchikov, Grigory Potemkin, Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov, and others.^[17] She became friends with Princess Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova, the sister of her husband’s official mistress. In Dashkov’s opinion, Dashkov introduced Catherine to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband; however, Catherine had been involved in military schemes against Elizabeth with the likely goal of subsequently getting rid of Peter III since at least 1749.

Peter III’s temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants, who later joined Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.^[18]

In 1759, Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna, who only lived to 14 months. Due to various rumours of Catherine’s promiscuity, Peter was led to believe he was not the child’s biological father and is known to have proclaimed, «Go to the devil!» when Catherine angrily dismissed his accusation. She thus spent much of this time alone in her private boudoir to hide away from Peter’s abrasive personality.^[19] In the first version of her memoirs, edited and published by Alexander Hertzen, Catherine strongly implied that the real father of her son Paul was not Peter, but rather Saltykov.^[20]

Catherine recalled in her memoirs her optimistic and resolute mood before her accession to the throne:

I used to say to myself that happiness and misery depend on ourselves. If you feel unhappy, raise yourself above unhappiness, and so act that your happiness may be independent of all eventualities.^[21]

After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (OS: 25 December 1761), Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. The imperial couple moved into the new Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. The emperor’s eccentricities and policies, including a great admiration for the Prussian king Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761. Peter, however, supported Frederick II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the partition of Polish territories with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of Holstein and Denmark over the province of Schleswig (see Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff). As Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia’s traditional ally against Sweden.

In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while his wife lived in another palace nearby. On the night of 8 July (OS: 27 June 1762),^[22] Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been arrested by her estranged husband and that all they had been planning must take place at once. The next day, she left the palace and departed for the Ismailovsky Regiment, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the Ismailovsky Regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne. She had her husband arrested, and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne.^[23][24] On 17 July 1762—eight days after the coup that amazed the outside world^[25] and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at Ropsha, possibly at the hands of Alexei Orlov (younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of haemorrhoidal colic and an apoplexy stroke.^[26]

At the time of Peter III’s overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included Ivan VI (1740–1764), who had been confined at Schlüsselburg in Lake Ladoga from the age of six months and who was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup. Like Empress Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. Yelizaveta Alekseyevna Tarakanova (1753–1775) was another potential rival.

Although Catherine did not descend from the Romanov dynasty, her ancestors included members of the Rurik dynasty, which preceded the Romanovs. She succeeded her husband as empress regnant, following the precedent established when Catherine I succeeded her husband Peter the Great in 1725. Historians debate Catherine’s technical status, whether as a regent or as a usurper, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul.

Reign (1762–1796)[edit]

Coronation (1762)[edit]

Catherine was crowned at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow on 22 September 1762.^[27] Her coronation marks the creation of one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty, the Imperial Crown of Russia, designed by Swiss-French court diamond jeweller Jérémie Pauzié. Inspired by Byzantine design, the crown was constructed of two half spheres, one gold and one silver, representing the eastern and western Roman empires, divided by a foliate garland and fastened with a low hoop. The crown contains 75 pearls and 4,936 Indian diamonds forming laurel and oak leaves, the symbols of power and strength, and is surmounted by a 398.62-carat ruby spinel that previously belonged to the Empress Elizabeth, and a diamond cross. The crown was produced in a record two months and weighed 2.3 kg (5.1 lbs).^[28] From 1762, the Great Imperial Crown was the coronation crown of all Romanov emperors until the monarchy’s abolition in 1917. It is one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and is now on display in the Moscow Kremlin Armoury Museum.^[29]

Foreign affairs[edit]

During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire by some 520,000 square kilometres (200,000 sq mi), absorbing New Russia, Crimea, the North Caucasus, right-bank Ukraine, White Russia, Lithuania, and Courland at the expense, mainly, of two powers—the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[30]

Catherine’s foreign minister, Nikita Panin (in office 1763–1781), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of her reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of roubles to setting up a «Northern Accord» between Russia, Prussia, Poland and Sweden, to counter the power of the Bourbon–Habsburg League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour and Catherine had him replaced with Ivan Osterman (in office 1781–1797).^[31]

Catherine agreed to a commercial treaty with Great Britain in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of Britain’s friendship, she was wary of Britain’s increased power following its complete victory in the Seven Years’ War, which threatened the European balance of power.^[32]

Russo-Turkish Wars[edit]

Peter the Great had succeeded in gaining a toehold in the south, on the edge of the Black Sea, in the Azov campaigns. Catherine completed the conquest of the south, making Russia the dominant power in the Balkans after the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. Russia inflicted some of the heaviest defeats ever suffered by the Ottoman Empire, including the Battle of Chesma (5–7 July 1770) and the Battle of Kagul (21 July 1770). In 1769, a last major Crimean–Nogai slave raid, which ravaged the Russian held territories in Ukraine, saw the capture of up to 20,000 slaves.^[33][34]

The Russian victories procured access to the Black Sea and allowed Catherine’s government to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of Odessa, Nikolayev, Yekaterinoslav (literally: «the Glory of Catherine»), and Kherson. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed 10 July 1774, gave the Russians territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn, and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers Dnieper and Bug. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval or commercial traffic in the Azov Sea, granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, and made the Crimea a protectorate of Russia. Russia’s State Council in 1770 announced a policy in favour of eventual Crimean independence. Catherine named Şahin Giray, a Crimean Tatar leader, to head the Crimean state and maintain friendly relations with Russia. His period of rule proved disappointing after repeated effort to prop up his regime through military force and monetary aid. Finally Catherine annexed the Crimea in 1783. The palace of the Crimean Khanate passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1787, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.^[35]

The Ottomans restarted hostilities in the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792. This war was another catastrophe for the Ottomans, ending with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimea and granted the Yedisan region to Russia.

Russo-Persian War[edit]

In the Treaty of Georgievsk (1783), Russia agreed to protect Georgia against any new invasion and further political aspirations of their Persian suzerains. Catherine waged a new war against Persia in 1796 after they, under the new king Agha Mohammad Khan, had again invaded Georgia and established rule in 1795 and had expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. The ultimate goal for the Russian government, however, was to topple the anti-Russian shah (king), and to replace him with a half-brother, Morteza Qoli Khan, who had defected to Russia and was therefore pro-Russian.^[36][37]

It was widely expected that a 13,000-strong Russian corps would be led by the seasoned general, Ivan Gudovich, but the empress followed the advice of her lover, Prince Zubov, and entrusted the command to his youthful brother, Count Valerian Zubov. The Russian troops set out from Kizlyar in April 1796 and stormed the key fortress of Derbent on 10 May. The event was glorified by the court poet Derzhavin in his famous ode; he later commented bitterly on Zubov’s inglorious return from the expedition in another remarkable poem.^[38]

By mid-June 1796, Zubov’s troops overran without any resistance most of the territory of modern-day Azerbaijan, including three principal cities—Baku, Shemakha, and Ganja. By November, they were stationed at the confluence of the Araks and Kura Rivers, poised to attack mainland Iran. In this month, the empress of Russia died and her successor Paul, who detested that the Zubovs had other plans for the army, ordered the troops to retreat to Russia. This reversal aroused the frustration and enmity of the powerful Zubovs and other officers who took part in the campaign: many of them would be among the conspirators who arranged Paul’s murder five years later.^[39]

Relations with Western Europe[edit]

Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She refused the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp which had ports on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and refrained from having a Russian army in Germany. Instead she pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the 19th and early 20th centuries as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–1779) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780, she established a League of Armed Neutrality, designed to defend neutral shipping from being searched by the British Royal Navy during the American Revolutionary War.

From 1788 to 1790, Russia fought a war against Sweden, a conflict instigated by Catherine’s cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to overrun the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottoman Turks, and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia’s Baltic Fleet checked the Royal Swedish navy in the tied Battle of Hogland (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the Theatre War). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund in 1790, the parties signed the Treaty of Värälä (14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the Treaty of Åbo. Russia was to stop any involvement in internal affairs of Sweden. Large sums were paid to Gustav III. Peace ensued for 20 years in spite of the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.^[40]

Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[edit]

In 1764, Catherine placed Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, her former lover, on the Polish throne. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from the King Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in carrying it out in the 1790s. In 1768, she formally became the protector of political rights of dissidents and peasants of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an anti-Russian uprising in Poland, the Confederation of Bar (1768–1772), supported by France. After the rebels, their French and European volunteers, and their allied Ottoman Empire had been defeated, she established in the Commonwealth a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a Permanent Council, under the supervision of her ambassadors and envoys.^[41]

Being afraid of the May Constitution of Poland (1791) that might lead to a resurgence in the power of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to refrain from her planned intervention into France and to intervene in Poland instead. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the Targowica Confederation. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the Polish–Russian War of 1792 and in the Kościuszko Uprising (1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795).^[42]

Relations with China[edit]

The Qianlong Emperor of China was committed to an expansionist policy in Central Asia and saw the Russian Empire as a potential rival, making for difficult and unfriendly relations between Beijing and Saint Petersburg.^[43] In 1762, he unilaterally abrogated the Treaty of Kyakhta, which governed the caravan trade between the two empires.^[44] Another source of tension was the wave of Dzungar Mongol fugitives from the Chinese state who took refuge with the Russians.^[45] The Dzungar genocide which was committed by the Qing state had led many Dzungars to seek sanctuary in the Russian Empire, and it was also one of the reasons for the abrogation of the Treaty of Kyakhta. Catherine perceived that the Qianlong Emperor was an unpleasant and arrogant neighbour, once saying: «I shall not die until I have ejected the Turks from Europe, suppressed the pride of China and established trade with India».^[45] In a 1790 letter to Baron de Grimm written in French, she called the Qianlong Emperor «mon voisin chinois aux petits yeux» («my Chinese neighbour with small eyes»).^[43]

Relations with Japan[edit]

In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with Japan to the south for supplies and food. In 1783, storms drove a Japanese sea captain, Daikokuya Kōdayū, ashore in the Aleutian Islands, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Daikokuya an audience at Tsarskoye Selo. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by Adam Laxman. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed.^[46]

The evaluation of foreign policy[edit]

Nicholas I, her grandson, evaluated the foreign policy of Catherine the Great as a dishonest one.^[47] Catherine failed to reach any of the initial goals she had put forward. Her foreign policy lacked a long-term strategy and from the very start was characterised by a series of mistakes. She lost the large territories of the Russian protectorate of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania and left its territories to Prussia and Austria. The Commonwealth had become the Russian protectorate since the reign of Peter I, but he did not intervene into the problem of political freedoms of dissidents advocating for their religious freedoms only. Catherine did turn Russia into a global great power not only a European one but with quite a different reputation from what she initially had planned as an honest policy. The global trade by Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia. Her dynasty lost power because of this and of a war with Austria and Germany, impossible without her foreign policy.^[48]

Economics and finance[edit]

Russian economic development was well below the standards in western Europe. Historian François Cruzet writes that Russia under Catherine:

had neither a free peasantry, nor a significant middle class, nor legal norms hospitable to private enterprise. Still, there was a start of industry, mainly textiles around Moscow and ironworks in the Ural Mountains, with a labour force mainly of serfs, bound to the works.^[49]

Catherine imposed a comprehensive system of state regulation of merchants’ activities. It was a failure because it narrowed and stifled entrepreneurship and did not reward economic development.^[50] She had more success when she strongly encouraged the migration of the Volga Germans, farmers from Germany who settled mostly in the Volga River Valley region. They indeed helped modernise the sector that totally dominated the Russian economy. They introduced numerous innovations regarding wheat production and flour milling, tobacco culture, sheep raising, and small-scale manufacturing.^[51]

In 1768, the Assignation Bank was given the task of issuing the first government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded upon the presentation of those notes. The emergence of these assignation roubles was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation roubles circulated on equal footing with the silver rouble; a market exchange rate for these two currencies was ongoing. The use of these notes continued until 1849.^[52]

Catherine paid a great deal of attention to financial reform, and relied heavily on the advice of Prince A. A. Viazemski. She found that piecemeal reform worked poorly because there was no overall view of a comprehensive state budget. Money was needed for wars and necessitated the junking the old financial institutions. A key principle was responsibilities defined by function. It was instituted by the Fundamental Law of 7 November 1775. Vaizemski’s Office of State Revenue took centralised control and by 1781, the government possessed its first approximation of a state budget.^[52]

Government organisation[edit]

Catherine made public health a priority. She made use of the social theory ideas of German cameralism and French physiocracy, as well as Russian precedents and experiments such as foundling homes. She launched the Moscow Foundling Home and lying-in hospital, 1764, and Paul’s Hospital, 1763. She had the government collect and publish vital statistics. In 1762 called on the army to upgrade its medical services. She established a centralised medical administration charged with initiating vigorous health policies. Catherine decided to have herself inoculated against smallpox by Thomas Dimsdale, a British doctor. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Her son Pavel later was inoculated as well. Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire and stated: «My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger».^[53] By 1800, approximately 2 million inoculations (almost 6% of the population) were administered in the Russian Empire. Historians consider her efforts to be a success.^[54]

Serfs[edit]

According to a census taken from 1754 to 1762, Catherine owned 500,000 serfs. A further 2.8 million belonged to the Russian state.^[55]

Rights and conditions[edit]

At the time of Catherine’s reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land their parents had. Even before the rule of Catherine, serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom.^[56] The understanding of law in Imperial Russia by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as to accumulate wealth. To become serfs, people conceded their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and support in times of hardship. In addition, they received land to till, but were taxed a certain percentage of their crops to give to their landowners. These were the privileges a serf was entitled to and that nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine’s reign, and this is the system she inherited.

Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom. If a noble did not live up to his side of the deal, the serfs could file complaints against him by following the proper channels of law.^[57] Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this because she did not want to be bothered by the peasantry, but did not want to give them reason to revolt. In this act, she gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status they had lacked before.^[58] Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs.^[59] Some serfs did apply for freedom and were successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles, but this was by no means universal.

Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals.^[60] The only thing a noble could not do to his serfs was to kill them. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters), they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during Catherine’s reign, but she signed legislation prohibiting it.^[57] Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, she took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.^[61]

While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school as well as employ them at businesses that paid wages.^[62] This happened more often during Catherine’s reign because of the new schools she established. Only in this way apart from conscription to the army could a serf leave the farm for which he was responsible but this was used for selling serfs to people who could not own them legally because of absence of nobility abroad.

Attitudes towards Catherine[edit]

The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one.^[63]
However, if the empress’ policies were too extreme or too disliked, she was not considered the true empress. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this «fake» empress with the «true» empress, whoever she may be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to convey their message. However, usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the empress, they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned empress and misinterpreting her decrees.^[64] However, they were already suspicious of Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church.^[65] Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were confused as to the circumstances of her accession to the throne.^[66]

The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including crop failure, and epidemics, especially a major epidemic in 1771. The nobles were imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767.^[67] Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during Pugachev’s Rebellion of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true empress because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time they followed a pretender under Catherine’s reign.^[68] Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real emperor should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause.^[69] With all this discontent in mind, Catherine did rule for 10 years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as Pugachev’s. The rebellion ultimately failed and in fact backfired as Catherine was pushed away from the idea of serf liberation following the violent uprising. Under Catherine’s rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontented.

Arts and culture[edit]

Catherine was a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The Hermitage Museum, which now occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine’s personal collection. The empress was a great lover of art and books, and ordered the construction of the Hermitage in 1770 to house her expanding collection of paintings, sculpture, and books.^[70] By 1790, the Hermitage was home to 38,000 books, 10,000 gems and 10,000 drawings. Two wings were devoted to her collections of «curiosities».^[71] She ordered the planting of the first «English garden» at Tsarskoye Selo in May 1770.^[70] In a letter to Voltaire in 1772, she wrote: «Right now I adore English gardens, curves, gentle slopes, ponds in the form of lakes, archipelagos on dry land, and I have a profound scorn for straight lines, symmetric avenues. I hate fountains that torture water in order to make it take a course contrary to its nature: Statues are relegated to galleries, vestibules etc.; in a word, Anglomania is the master of my plantomania».^[72]

Catherine shared in the general European craze for all things Chinese, and made a point of collecting Chinese art and buying porcelain in the popular Chinoiserie style.^[73] Between 1762 and 1766, she had built the «Chinese Palace» at Oranienbaum which reflected the chinoiserie style of architecture and gardening.^[73] The Chinese Palace was designed by the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi who specialised in the chinoiserie style.^[73] In 1779, she hired the Scottish architect Charles Cameron to build the Chinese Village at Tsarskoye Selo (modern Pushkin, Saint Petersburg).^[73] Catherine had at first attempted to hire a Chinese architect to build the Chinese Village, and on finding that was impossible, settled on Cameron, who likewise specialised in the chinoiserie style.^[73]

She made a special effort to bring leading intellectuals and scientists to Russia, and she wrote her own comedies, works of fiction, and memoirs. She worked with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert – all French encyclopedists who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, became foreign members of the Free Economic Society, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She recruited the scientists Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas from Berlin and Anders Johan Lexell from Sweden to the Russian capital.^[74][75]

Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her «The Star of the North» and the «Semiramis of Russia» (in reference to the legendary Queen of Babylon, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Although she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the National Library of Russia.^[76]

Catherine read three sorts of books, namely those for pleasure, those for information, and those to provide her with a philosophy.^[77] In the first category, she read romances and comedies that were popular at the time, many of which were regarded as «inconsequential» by the critics both then and since.^[77] She especially liked the work of German comic writers such as Moritz August von Thümmel and Christoph Friedrich Nicolai.^[77] In the second category fell the work of Denis Diderot, Jacques Necker, Johann Bernhard Basedow and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon.^[78] Catherine expressed some frustration with the economists she read for what she regarded as their impractical theories, writing in the margin of one of Necker’s books that if it was possible to solve all of the state’s economic problems in one day, she would have done so a long time ago.^[78] For information about particular nations that interested her, she read Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville’s Memoirs de Chine to learn about the vast and wealthy Chinese empire that bordered her empire; François Baron de Tott’s Memoires de les Turcs et les Tartares for information about the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean khanate; the books of Frederick the Great praising himself to learn about Frederick just as much as to learn about Prussia; and the pamphlets of Benjamin Franklin denouncing the British Crown to understand the reasons behind the American Revolution.^[78] In the third category fell the work of Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, Ferdinando Galiani, Nicolas Baudeau, and Sir William Blackstone.^[79] For philosophy, she liked books promoting what has been called «enlightened despotism», which she embraced as her ideal of an autocratic but reformist government that operated according to the rule of law, not the whims of the ruler, hence her interest in Blackstone’s legal commentaries.^[79]

Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French Encyclopédie on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called together at Moscow a Grand Commission – almost a consultative parliament – composed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles, burghers, and peasants) and of various nationalities. The commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The empress prepared the «Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly», pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially Montesquieu and Cesare Beccaria.^[80][81]

As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisors, she refrained from immediately putting them into practice. After holding more than 200 sittings, the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.

Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775, the empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire. The statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts were created, government officials numbering more than double this were appointed, and spending on local government increased sixfold. In 1785, Catherine conferred on the nobility the Charter to the Nobility, increasing the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statute of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing «little by little».^[82]

During Catherine’s reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the Russian Enlightenment. Gavrila Derzhavin, Denis Fonvizin and Ippolit Bogdanovich laid the groundwork for the great writers of the 19th century, especially for Alexander Pushkin. Catherine became a great patron of Russian opera. Alexander Radishchev published his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1790, shortly after the start of the French Revolution. He warned of uprisings in Russia because of the deplorable social conditions of the serfs. Catherine decided it promoted the dangerous poison of the French Revolution. She had the book burned and the author exiled to Siberia.^[83][84]

Catherine also received Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun at her Tsarskoye Selo residence in St Petersburg, by whom she was painted shortly before her death. Madame Vigée Le Brun vividly describes the empress in her memoirs:^[85]

the sight of this famous woman so impressed me that I found it impossible to think of anything: I could only stare at her. Firstly I was very surprised at her small stature; I had imagined her to be very tall, as great as her fame. She was also very fat, but her face was still beautiful, and she wore her white hair up, framing it perfectly. Her genius seemed to rest on her forehead, which was both high and wide. Her eyes were soft and sensitive, her nose quite Greek, her colour high and her features expressive. She addressed me immediately in a voice full of sweetness, if a little throaty: «I am delighted to welcome you here, Madame, your reputation runs before you. I am very fond of the arts, especially painting. I am no connoisseur, but I am a great art lover.»

Madame Vigée Le Brun also describes the empress at a gala:^[85]

The double doors opened and the Empress appeared. I have said that she was quite small, and yet on the days when she made her public appearances, with her head held high, her eagle-like stare and a countenance accustomed to command, all this gave her such an air of majesty that to me she might have been Queen of the World; she wore the sashes of three orders, and her costume was both simple and regal; it consisted of a muslin tunic embroidered with gold fastened by a diamond belt, and the full sleeves were folded back in the Asiatic style. Over this tunic she wore a red velvet dolman with very short sleeves. The bonnet which held her white hair was not decorated with ribbons, but with the most beautiful diamonds.

Education[edit]

Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia.^[86] She believed a ‘new kind of person’ could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.^[87]

Catherine appointed Ivan Betskoy as her advisor on educational matters.^[88] Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey, and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British education pioneers, particularly the Rev. Daniel Dumaresq and Dr John Brown.^[89] In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs.^[90] However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission’s problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state’s control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the «proper and effectual education of the female sex»; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes.^[91] This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a ‘new kind of people’ raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment.^[92] The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.^[93]

Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of John Locke, and founded the famous Smolny Institute in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well.^[94] The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute’s philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.^[95]

From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system.^[96] However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the guberniya – a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor – on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.^[97]

By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries.^[98] One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician, Franz Aepinus. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels.

In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under Pyotr Zavadovsky. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created.^[99] The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in guberniya capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the «Guide to Teachers». This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.^[99]

Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program.^[100] Two years after the implementation of Catherine’s program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical^{[clarification needed]} methods. Yet by the end of Catherine’s reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.^[101]

Religious affairs[edit]

Catherine’s apparent embrace of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion. She nationalised all of the church lands to help pay for her wars, largely emptied the monasteries, and forced most of the remaining clergymen to survive as farmers or from fees for baptisms and other services. Very few members of the nobility entered the church, which became even less important than it had been. She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.^[102]

However, in accord with her anti-Ottoman policy, Catherine promoted the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule. She placed strictures on Catholics (ukaz of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland.^[103] Nevertheless, Catherine’s Russia provided an asylum and a base for regrouping to the Jesuits following the suppression of the Jesuits in most of Europe in 1773.^[103]

Islam[edit]

Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. She avoided force and tried persuasion (and money) to integrate Muslim areas into her empire.^[104] Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary incentives. Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy. However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.^{[citation needed]} Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry became too disruptive. After the «Toleration of All Faiths» Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build mosques and practise all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to Mecca, which previously had been denied. Catherine created the Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly to help regulate Muslim-populated regions as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government as a way of regulating religious affairs.^{[105][additional citation(s) needed]}

In 1785, Catherine approved the subsidising of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic people who wandered through southern Russia. In 1786, she assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system under government regulation. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.^[106]

Judaism[edit]

Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a Jew is because the term meant many things during her reign.^[107] Judaism was a small, if not non-existent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the First Partition of Poland, the large new Jewish element was treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. Catherine separated the Jews from Orthodox society, restricting them to the Pale of Settlement. She levied additional taxes on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Orthodox faith, that additional tax was lifted.^[108] Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule.^[109][110]

In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia’s economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782.^[111] Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres, even under the guise of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow’s middle class.^[112]

In 1785, Catherine declared Jews to be officially foreigners, with foreigners’ rights.^[113] This re-established the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish Haskalah. Catherine’s decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians.

Russian Orthodoxy[edit]

In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started. The church’s lands were expropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the Collegium of Accounting.^[114] Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the original intended amount.^[115] She closed 569 of 954 monasteries, of which only 161 received government money. Only 400,000 roubles of church wealth were paid back.^[116] While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat.^[115] Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine’s reign.^[102]

In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the Old Believers, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practise their faith openly without interference.^[117] While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Old Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764, she deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith.^[117] In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia.^[118][119]

Religious education was reviewed strictly. At first, she attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786, Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.^[120] By separating the public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.^[115]

Personal life[edit]

Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates.^[121][122] The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10% in 1767 to 11% in 1781 to 14% in 1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs from 1762 to 1772, 202,000 from 1773 to 1793, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795.^[123]: 119 Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. In 1767, Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants automatically would be promoted regardless of office or merit.^[124]

After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigory Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov and Nicholas Alexander Suk).^[125] Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 rubles, a pension of 5,000 rubles, and 4,000 peasants in Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777.^[126] The last of her lovers, Platon Zubov, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the legends about her.^[127]

Catherine kept her illegitimate son by Grigory Orlov (Alexis Bobrinsky, later elevated to Count Bobrinsky by Paul I) near Tula, away from her court.

Elite acceptance of a female ruler was more of an issue in Western Europe than in Russia. The British ambassador James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury, reported back to London:

Her Majesty has a masculine force of mind, obstinacy in adhering to a plan, and intrepidity in the execution of it; but she wants the more manly virtues of deliberation, forbearance in prosperity and accuracy of judgment, while she possesses in a high degree the weaknesses vulgarly attributed to her sex—love of flattery, and its inseparable companion, vanity; an inattention to unpleasant but salutary advice; and a propensity to voluptuousness which leads to excesses that would debase a female character in any sphere of life.^[128]

Poniatowski[edit]

Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, the British ambassador to Russia, offered Stanislaus Poniatowski a place in the embassy in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother’s side, came from the Czartoryski family, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland; Poniatowski and Catherine were eighth cousins, twice removed, by their mutual ancestor King Christian I of Denmark, by virtue of Poniatowski’s maternal descent from the Scottish House of Stuart. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, therefore well before encountering the Orlov brothers. In 1757, Poniatowski served in the British Army during the Seven Years’ War, thus severing close relationships with Catherine.^{[citation needed]} She bore him a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia, the daughter of Peter I’s second marriage), although she was legally regarded as Grand Duke Peter’s.^[129]

King Augustus III of Poland died in 1763, so Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king. She sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as king. Poniatowski accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine’s control. News of Catherine’s plan spread, and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her. She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov’s child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then.

Prussia (through the agency of Prince Henry), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under Maria Theresa) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 52,000 km² (20,000 sq mi) among them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less, Riga–Polotsk–Mogilev. In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of Minsk almost to Kiev and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of steppe down south in front of Ochakov, on the Black Sea. Later uprisings in Poland led to the third partition in 1795. Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation^[130] until its post-WWI reconstitution.

Orlov[edit]

Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the Streltsy Uprising (1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter’s pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine’s husband, the Grand Duke Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 coup d’état against her husband, but she preferred to remain the dowager empress of Russia rather than marrying anyone.

Grigory Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts, but Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in Saint Petersburg when Catherine became empress.

Orlov died in 1783. Their son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762–1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeyeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798–1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin (London, England, 1784–1842) who took part in the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) against Napoleon, and later served as ambassador in Turin, the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Potemkin[edit]

Grigory Potemkin was involved in the palace coup of 1762. In 1772, Catherine’s close friends informed her of Orlov’s affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773, the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine’s son Paul had started gaining support; both of these trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for help – mostly military – and he became devoted to her.

In 1772, Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General Aleksandr Bibikov to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin’s advice on military strategy. Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became the de facto absolute ruler of New Russia, governing its colonisation.

In 1780, Emperor Joseph II, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg. Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists.

Catherine was worried that Potemkin’s poor health would delay his important work in colonising and developing the south as he had planned. He died at the age of 52 in 1791.^[131]

Final months and death[edit]

Though Catherine’s life and reign included remarkable personal successes, they ended in two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed), King Gustav IV Adolf, visited her in September 1796, the empress’s intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept that Alexandra would not convert to Lutheranism, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. The frustration affected Catherine’s health. She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony which would establish her favourite grandson Alexander as her heir, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.^[132]

On 16 November [O.S. 5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady’s maid, Maria Perekusikhina, that she had slept better than she had in a long time.^[133] Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured.^[133] The court physician diagnosed a stroke^[133][134] and despite attempts to revive her she fell into a coma. She was given the last rites and died the following evening around 9:45.^[134] An autopsy confirmed a stroke as the cause of death.^[135]

Later, several rumours circulated regarding the cause and manner of her death. The most famous of these rumors is that she died after having sex with her horse. This rumor was widely circulated by satirical British and French publications at the time of her death. In his 1647 book Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise (Description of the Muscovite and Persian journey), German scholar Adam Olearius^[136] Olearius’s claims about a supposed Russian tendency towards bestiality with horses was often repeated in anti-Russian literature throughout the 17th and 18th centuries to illustrate the alleged barbarous «Asian» nature of Russia. Given the frequency which this story was repeated together with Catherine’s love of her adopted homeland and her love of horses, it is likely that these details were conflated into this rumor. Catherine had been targeted for being unmarried.^[137]

Catherine’s undated will, discovered in early 1792 among her papers by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky, gave specific instructions should she die: «Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better.»^[138] In the end, the empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver brocade dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery’s chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by Antonio Rinaldi.^[139][140] According to Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun: «The empress’s body lay in state for six weeks in a large and magnificently decorated room in the castle, which was kept lit day and night. Catherine was stretched on a ceremonial bed surrounded by the coats of arms of all the towns in Russia. Her face was left uncovered, and her fair hand rested on the bed. All the ladies, some of whom took turn to watch by the body, would go and kiss this hand, or at least appear to.» A description of the empress’s funeral is written in Madame Vigée Le Brun’s memoirs.

Issue[edit]

Name	Lifespan	Notes
Miscarriage	20 December 1752	According to court gossip, this lost pregnancy was attributed to Sergei Saltykov.[141]
Miscarriage	30 June 1753	This second lost pregnancy was also attributed to Saltykov;[141] this time she was very ill for 13 days. Catherine later wrote in her memoirs: «…They suspect that part of the afterbirth has not come away … on the 13th day it came out by itself».[142][143]
Paul (I) Petrovich Emperor of Russia	1 October 1754 – 23 March 1801 (Age: 46)	Born at the Winter Palace, officially he was a son of Peter III but in her memoirs, Catherine implies very strongly that Saltykov was the biological father of the child.[144] He married firstly Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1773 and had no issue. He married secondly, in 1776, Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg and had issue, including the future Alexander I of Russia and Nicholas I of Russia. He succeeded as emperor of Russia in 1796 and was murdered at Saint Michael’s Castle in 1801.
Anna Petrovna Grand Duchess of Russia	9 December 1757 – 8 March 1759 (Age: 15 months)	Possibly the offspring of Catherine and Stanislaus Poniatowski, Anna was born at the Winter Palace between 10 and 11 o’clock;[145] she was named by Empress Elizabeth after her deceased sister, against Catherine’s wishes.[146] On 17 December 1757, Anna was baptised and received the Great Cross of the Order of Saint Catherine.[147] Elizabeth served as godmother; she held Anna above the baptismal font and brought Catherine, who did not witness any of the celebrations, and Peter a gift of 60,000 rubles.[146] Elizabeth took Anna and raised the baby herself, as she had done with Paul.[148] In her memoirs, Catherine makes no mention of Anna’s death on 8 March 1759,[149] though she was inconsolable and entered a state of shock.[150] Anna’s funeral took place on 15 March, at Alexander Nevsky Lavra. After the funeral, Catherine never mentioned her dead daughter again.[151]
Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky [ru] Count Bobrinsky	11 April 1762 – 20 June 1813 (Age: 51)	Born at the Winter Palace, he was brought up at Bobriki; his father was Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov. He married Baroness Anna Dorothea von Ungern-Sternberg and had issue. Created Count Bobrinsky in 1796, he died in 1813.
Elizabeth Grigorevna Temkina (alleged daughter)	13 July 1775 – 25 May 1854 (Age: 78)	Born many years after the death of Catherine’s husband, brought up in the Samoilov household as Grigory Potemkin’s daughter, and never acknowledged by Catherine, it has been suggested that Temkina was the illegitimate child of Catherine and Potemkin, but this is now regarded as unlikely.[152]

Title[edit]

The Manifesto of 1763 begins with Catherine’s title:

We, Catherine the second, by the Grace of God, Empress and Autocrat of all the Russians at Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsarina of Kasan, Tsarina of Astrachan, Tsarina of Siberia, Lady of Pleskow and Grand Duchess of Smolensko, Duchess of Estonia and Livland, Carelial, Tver, Yugoria, Permia, Viatka and Bulgaria and others; Lady and Grand Duchess of Novgorod in the Netherland of Chernigov, Resan, Rostov, Yaroslav, Beloosrial, Udoria, Obdoria, Condinia, and Ruler of the entire North region and Lady of the Yurish, of the Cartalinian and Grusinian tsars and the Cabardinian land, of the Cherkessian and Gorsian princes and the lady of the manor and sovereign of many others.^[153]

Archives[edit]

Empress Catherine’s correspondence with Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, (the father of Catherine’s daughter-in-law Maria Feodorovna) written between 1768 and 1795, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.^[154]

In popular culture[edit]

• Empress Catherine appears as a character in Lord Byron’s unfinished mock-heroic poem Don Juan.
• She was a subject in The Royal Diaries series in the book Catherine: The Great Journey, Russia, 1743–1745 by Kristiana Gregory.
• The Empress is parodied in Offenbach’s operetta La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein (1867).^[155]
• Ernst Lubitsch’s silent film Forbidden Paradise (1924) told the story of Catherine’s romance with an officer.
• Marlene Dietrich portrayed Catherine the Great in the film The Scarlet Empress (1934).
• The Rise of Catherine the Great (1934) is a film starring Elisabeth Bergner and Douglas Fairbanks Jr.
• Lubitsch remade his 1924 silent film as the sound film A Royal Scandal (1945), also known as Czarina.
• Mae West published Catherine Was Great in 1944, starring in it then and in subsequent productions.
• Jeanne Moreau played a version of Catherine in the farce comedy film Great Catherine (1968).
• The British/Canadian/American TV miniseries Young Catherine (1991), starring Julia Ormond as Catherine and Vanessa Redgrave as Empress Elizabeth, is based on Catherine’s early life.
• The television movie Catherine the Great (1995) stars Catherine Zeta-Jones as Catherine and Jeanne Moreau as Empress Elizabeth.
• Actress Olga Antonova played the role of the Empress in the 2000 film The Captain’s Daughter, based on the novel of the same name by Alexander Pushkin.
• Her rise to power and reign are portrayed in the award-winning Russia-1 television series Ekaterina, which has been extended for a second season in 2017 and a third season in 2019.
• The Channel One Russia television series Catherine the Great was released in 2015.
• The song «Catherine the Great» from the album Foreverland by The Divine Comedy was released as a single on the 24th of June, 2016.
• Catherine (portrayed by Meghan Tonjes) is featured in the web series Epic Rap Battles of History, in the episode «Alexander the Great vs. Ivan the Terrible» (12 July 2016), pitted against the titular characters, as well as Frederick the Great and Pompey the Great.^[156]
• The television miniseries Catherine the Great (2019) stars Helen Mirren.
• She is portrayed by Elle Fanning in the Hulu television series The Great (2020).
• She appears as a leader of the Russian civilization in Civilization games II, III, IV and V.

Ancestry[edit]

See also[edit]

• Legends of Catherine the Great
• Potemkin village
• Family tree of Russian monarchs

References[edit]

Explanatory notes[edit]

Citations[edit]

General and cited sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

• Catherine the Great on In Our Time at the BBC
• Some of the code of laws mentioned above, along with other information
• Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II, inviting foreign immigration at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 March 2004)
• Information about the Battle of Svenskund and the war
• Biography of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
• Briefly about Catherine: The Enlightened Despots at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 June 2012)
• Family tree of the ancestors of Catherine the Great at the Wayback Machine (archived 11 September 2007) (in Russian)
• Douglas Smith, Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 August 2011)
• Diaries and Letters: Catherine II – German Princess Who Came to Rule Russia at the Wayback Machine (archived 29 June 2015)^{[self-published source]}
• «Catherine II.» . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
• «Catharine II.» . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
• Romanovs. The fifth film. Peter III; Catherine II on YouTube – Historical reconstruction «The Romanovs». StarMedia. Babich-Design (Russia, 2013)

Catherine the Great House of Anhalt Born: 2 May 1729 Died: 17 November 1796
Regnal titles
Preceded by Peter III	Empress of Russia 9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796	Succeeded by Paul I
Russian royalty
Vacant Title last held by Martha Skowrońska	Empress consort of Russia 5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762	Vacant Title next held by Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg

Catherine the Great
Portrait by Alexander Roslin, c. 1780s
Empress regnant of Russia
Reign	9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796
Coronation	22 September 1762
Predecessor	Peter III
Successor	Paul I
Empress consort of Russia
Tenure	5 January – 9 July 1762
Born	Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst 2 May [O.S. 21 April] 1729 Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia, Holy Roman Empire (now Szczecin, Poland)
Died	17 November [O.S. 6 November] 1796 (aged 67) Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Burial	Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
Spouse	Peter III of Russia ​ ​ (m. 1745; died 1762)​
Issue among others…	Paul I of Russia Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna Alexei, Count Bobrinsky
Names German: Sophie Friederike Auguste Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Романова, romanized: Yekaterina Alekseyevna Romanova English: Catherine Alexeievna Romanova
House	Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov (by marriage) Ascania (by birth)
Father	Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst
Mother	Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
Religion	Russian Orthodox (1744–1796) prev. Lutheran (1729–1744)
Signature

Catherine II^[a] (born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796),^[b] most commonly known as Catherine the Great,^[c] was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power following the overthrow of her husband, Peter III. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, and theatres; along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe, and the recognition of Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.

In her accession to power and her rule of the empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Count Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin. Assisted by highly successful generals such as Alexander Suvorov and Pyotr Rumyantsev, and admirals such as Samuel Greig and Fyodor Ushakov, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, the Crimean Khanate was crushed following victories over the Bar Confederation and Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. With the support of Great Britain, Russia colonised the territories of New Russia along the coasts of the Black and Azov Seas. In the west, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled by Catherine’s former lover King Stanisław August Poniatowski, was eventually partitioned, with the Russian Empire gaining the largest share. In the east, Russians became the first Europeans to colonise Alaska, establishing Russian America.

Many cities and towns were founded on Catherine’s orders in the newly conquered lands, most notably Odessa, Yekaterinoslav (to-day known as Dnipro), Kherson, Nikolayev, and Sevastopol. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the economy continued to depend on serfdom, and the increasing demands of the state and of private landowners intensified the exploitation of serf labour. This was one of the chief reasons behind rebellions, including Pugachev’s Rebellion of Cossacks, nomads, peoples of the Volga, and peasants.

The period of Catherine the Great’s rule is also known as the Catherinian Era.^[1] The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the empress, changed the face of the country. She is often included in the ranks of the enlightened despots.^[d] As a patron of the arts, she presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, including the establishment of the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe.

Early life[edit]

Catherine was born in Stettin, Province of Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia, Holy Roman Empire, as Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg. Her mother was Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. Her father, Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, belonged to the ruling German family of Anhalt.^[3] He failed to become the duke of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and at the time of his daughter’s birth held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. However, because her second cousin Peter III converted to Orthodox Christianity, her mother’s brother became the heir to the Swedish throne^[4] and two of her first cousins, Gustav III and Charles XIII, later became Kings of Sweden.^[5] In accordance with the custom then prevailing in the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. According to her memoirs, Sophie was regarded as a tomboy, and trained herself to master a sword.

Sophie’s childhood was very uneventful. She once wrote to her correspondent Baron Grimm: «I see nothing of interest in it.»^[6] Although Sophie was born a princess, her family had very little money. Her rise to power was supported by her mother Joanna’s wealthy relatives, who were both nobles and royal relations.^[4] The more than 300 sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire, many of them quite small and powerless, made for a highly competitive political system as the various princely families fought for advantage over each other, often via political marriages.^[7] For the smaller German princely families, an advantageous marriage was one of the best means of advancing their interests, and the young Sophie was groomed throughout her childhood to be the wife of some powerful ruler in order to improve the position of the reigning house of Anhalt. Besides her native German, Sophie became fluent in French, the lingua franca of European elites in the 18th century.^[8] The young Sophie received the standard education for an 18th-century German princess, with a concentration upon learning the etiquette expected of a lady, French, and Lutheran theology.^[9]

Sophie first met her future husband, who would become Peter III of Russia, at the age of 10. Peter was her second cousin. Based on her writings, she found Peter detestable upon meeting him. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol at such a young age. Peter also still played with toy soldiers. She later wrote that she stayed at one end of the castle, and Peter at the other.^[10]

Marriage and reign of Peter III[edit]

The choice of Princess Sophie as wife of the future tsar was one result of the Lopukhina affair in which Count Jean Armand de Lestocq and King Frederick the Great of Prussia took an active part. The objective was to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of Austria, and to overthrow the chancellor Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin, a known partisan of the Austrian alliance on whom Russian Empress Elizabeth relied. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophie’s mother, Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. Historical accounts portray Joanna as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Her hunger for fame centred on her daughter’s prospects of becoming empress of Russia, but she infuriated Empress Elizabeth, who eventually banned her from the country for spying for King Frederick. Empress Elizabeth knew the family well and had intended to marry Princess Joanna’s brother Charles Augustus (Karl August von Holstein); however, he died of smallpox in 1727 before the wedding could take place.^[11] Despite Joanna’s interference, Empress Elizabeth took a strong liking to Sophie, and Sophie and Peter eventually married in 1745.

When Sophie arrived in Russia in 1744, she spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with Empress Elizabeth but with her husband and with the Russian people as well. She applied herself to learning the Russian language with zeal, rising at night and walking about her bedroom barefoot, repeating her lessons. When she wrote her memoirs, she said she made the decision then to do whatever was necessary and to profess to believe whatever was required of her to become qualified to wear the crown. Although she mastered the language, she retained an accent.

Sophie recalled in her memoirs that as soon as she arrived in Russia, she fell ill with a pleuritis that almost killed her. She credited her survival to frequent bloodletting; in a single day, she had four phlebotomies. Her mother’s opposition to this practice brought her the empress’s disfavour. When Sophie’s situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran pastor. Awaking from her delirium, however, Sophie said, «I don’t want any Lutheran; I want my Orthodox father [clergyman]». This raised her in the empress’s esteem.

Princess Sophie’s father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter’s conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy. Despite his objections, on 28 June 1744, the Russian Orthodox Church received Princess Sophie as a member with the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) patronymic Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey), so that she was in all respects the namesake of Catherine I, the mother of Elizabeth and the grandmother of Peter III. On the following day, the formal betrothal of Catherine and Peter took place and the long-planned dynastic marriage finally occurred on 21 August 1745 in Saint Petersburg. Sophie had turned 16. Her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. The bridegroom, known as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (located in the north-west of present-day Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of Oranienbaum, which remained the residence of the «young court» for many years. From there, they governed the duchy (which occupied less than a third of the current German state of Schleswig-Holstein, even including that part of Schleswig occupied by Denmark) to obtain experience to govern Russia.

Apart from providing that experience, the marriage was unsuccessful—it was not consummated for years due to Peter III’s mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups that opposed her husband. Bored with her husband, Catherine became an avid reader of books, mostly in French.^[12] She disparaged her husband for his devotion to reading on the one hand «Lutheran prayer-books, the other the history of and trial of some highway robbers who had been hanged or broken on the wheel».^[9] It was during this period that she first read Voltaire and the other philosophes of the French Enlightenment. As she learned Russian, she became increasingly interested in the literature of her adopted country. Finally, it was the Annals by Tacitus that caused what she called a «revolution» in her teenage mind as Tacitus was the first intellectual she read who understood power politics as they are, not as they should be. She was especially impressed with his argument that people do not act for their professed idealistic reasons, and instead she learned to look for the «hidden and interested motives».^[13]

According to Alexander Hertzen, who edited a version of Catherine’s memoirs, Catherine had her first sexual relationship with Sergei Saltykov while living at Oranienbaum as her marriage to Peter had not been consummated, as Catherine later claimed.^[14][15] Catherine nonetheless left the final version of her memoirs to Paul I in which she explained why Paul had been Peter’s son. Sergei Saltykov was used to make Peter jealous, and relations with Saltykov were platonic. Catherine wanted to become an empress herself and did not want another heir to the throne; however, Empress Elizabeth blackmailed Peter and Catherine to produce this heir. Peter and Catherine had both been involved in a 1749 Russian military plot to crown Peter (together with Catherine) in Elizabeth’s stead. As a result of this plot, Elizabeth likely wanted to leave both Catherine and her accomplice Peter without any rights to the Russian throne. Elizabeth therefore allowed Catherine to have sexual lovers only after a new legal heir, Catherine and Peter’s son, survived and appeared to be strong.^[16]

After this, Catherine carried on sexual liaisons over the years with many men, including Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (1734–1783), Alexander Vasilchikov, Grigory Potemkin, Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov, and others.^[17] She became friends with Princess Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova, the sister of her husband’s official mistress. In Dashkov’s opinion, Dashkov introduced Catherine to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband; however, Catherine had been involved in military schemes against Elizabeth with the likely goal of subsequently getting rid of Peter III since at least 1749.

Peter III’s temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants, who later joined Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.^[18]

In 1759, Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna, who only lived to 14 months. Due to various rumours of Catherine’s promiscuity, Peter was led to believe he was not the child’s biological father and is known to have proclaimed, «Go to the devil!» when Catherine angrily dismissed his accusation. She thus spent much of this time alone in her private boudoir to hide away from Peter’s abrasive personality.^[19] In the first version of her memoirs, edited and published by Alexander Hertzen, Catherine strongly implied that the real father of her son Paul was not Peter, but rather Saltykov.^[20]

Catherine recalled in her memoirs her optimistic and resolute mood before her accession to the throne:

I used to say to myself that happiness and misery depend on ourselves. If you feel unhappy, raise yourself above unhappiness, and so act that your happiness may be independent of all eventualities.^[21]

After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (OS: 25 December 1761), Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. The imperial couple moved into the new Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. The emperor’s eccentricities and policies, including a great admiration for the Prussian king Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761. Peter, however, supported Frederick II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the partition of Polish territories with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of Holstein and Denmark over the province of Schleswig (see Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff). As Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia’s traditional ally against Sweden.

In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while his wife lived in another palace nearby. On the night of 8 July (OS: 27 June 1762),^[22] Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been arrested by her estranged husband and that all they had been planning must take place at once. The next day, she left the palace and departed for the Ismailovsky Regiment, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the Ismailovsky Regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne. She had her husband arrested, and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne.^[23][24] On 17 July 1762—eight days after the coup that amazed the outside world^[25] and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at Ropsha, possibly at the hands of Alexei Orlov (younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of haemorrhoidal colic and an apoplexy stroke.^[26]

At the time of Peter III’s overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included Ivan VI (1740–1764), who had been confined at Schlüsselburg in Lake Ladoga from the age of six months and who was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup. Like Empress Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. Yelizaveta Alekseyevna Tarakanova (1753–1775) was another potential rival.

Although Catherine did not descend from the Romanov dynasty, her ancestors included members of the Rurik dynasty, which preceded the Romanovs. She succeeded her husband as empress regnant, following the precedent established when Catherine I succeeded her husband Peter the Great in 1725. Historians debate Catherine’s technical status, whether as a regent or as a usurper, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul.

Reign (1762–1796)[edit]

Coronation (1762)[edit]

Catherine was crowned at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow on 22 September 1762.^[27] Her coronation marks the creation of one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty, the Imperial Crown of Russia, designed by Swiss-French court diamond jeweller Jérémie Pauzié. Inspired by Byzantine design, the crown was constructed of two half spheres, one gold and one silver, representing the eastern and western Roman empires, divided by a foliate garland and fastened with a low hoop. The crown contains 75 pearls and 4,936 Indian diamonds forming laurel and oak leaves, the symbols of power and strength, and is surmounted by a 398.62-carat ruby spinel that previously belonged to the Empress Elizabeth, and a diamond cross. The crown was produced in a record two months and weighed 2.3 kg (5.1 lbs).^[28] From 1762, the Great Imperial Crown was the coronation crown of all Romanov emperors until the monarchy’s abolition in 1917. It is one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and is now on display in the Moscow Kremlin Armoury Museum.^[29]

Foreign affairs[edit]

During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire by some 520,000 square kilometres (200,000 sq mi), absorbing New Russia, Crimea, the North Caucasus, right-bank Ukraine, White Russia, Lithuania, and Courland at the expense, mainly, of two powers—the Ottoman Empire and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[30]

Catherine’s foreign minister, Nikita Panin (in office 1763–1781), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of her reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of roubles to setting up a «Northern Accord» between Russia, Prussia, Poland and Sweden, to counter the power of the Bourbon–Habsburg League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour and Catherine had him replaced with Ivan Osterman (in office 1781–1797).^[31]

Catherine agreed to a commercial treaty with Great Britain in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of Britain’s friendship, she was wary of Britain’s increased power following its complete victory in the Seven Years’ War, which threatened the European balance of power.^[32]

Russo-Turkish Wars[edit]

Peter the Great had succeeded in gaining a toehold in the south, on the edge of the Black Sea, in the Azov campaigns. Catherine completed the conquest of the south, making Russia the dominant power in the Balkans after the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. Russia inflicted some of the heaviest defeats ever suffered by the Ottoman Empire, including the Battle of Chesma (5–7 July 1770) and the Battle of Kagul (21 July 1770). In 1769, a last major Crimean–Nogai slave raid, which ravaged the Russian held territories in Ukraine, saw the capture of up to 20,000 slaves.^[33][34]

The Russian victories procured access to the Black Sea and allowed Catherine’s government to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of Odessa, Nikolayev, Yekaterinoslav (literally: «the Glory of Catherine»), and Kherson. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed 10 July 1774, gave the Russians territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn, and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers Dnieper and Bug. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval or commercial traffic in the Azov Sea, granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, and made the Crimea a protectorate of Russia. Russia’s State Council in 1770 announced a policy in favour of eventual Crimean independence. Catherine named Şahin Giray, a Crimean Tatar leader, to head the Crimean state and maintain friendly relations with Russia. His period of rule proved disappointing after repeated effort to prop up his regime through military force and monetary aid. Finally Catherine annexed the Crimea in 1783. The palace of the Crimean Khanate passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1787, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.^[35]

The Ottomans restarted hostilities in the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792. This war was another catastrophe for the Ottomans, ending with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimea and granted the Yedisan region to Russia.

Russo-Persian War[edit]

In the Treaty of Georgievsk (1783), Russia agreed to protect Georgia against any new invasion and further political aspirations of their Persian suzerains. Catherine waged a new war against Persia in 1796 after they, under the new king Agha Mohammad Khan, had again invaded Georgia and established rule in 1795 and had expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. The ultimate goal for the Russian government, however, was to topple the anti-Russian shah (king), and to replace him with a half-brother, Morteza Qoli Khan, who had defected to Russia and was therefore pro-Russian.^[36][37]

It was widely expected that a 13,000-strong Russian corps would be led by the seasoned general, Ivan Gudovich, but the empress followed the advice of her lover, Prince Zubov, and entrusted the command to his youthful brother, Count Valerian Zubov. The Russian troops set out from Kizlyar in April 1796 and stormed the key fortress of Derbent on 10 May. The event was glorified by the court poet Derzhavin in his famous ode; he later commented bitterly on Zubov’s inglorious return from the expedition in another remarkable poem.^[38]

By mid-June 1796, Zubov’s troops overran without any resistance most of the territory of modern-day Azerbaijan, including three principal cities—Baku, Shemakha, and Ganja. By November, they were stationed at the confluence of the Araks and Kura Rivers, poised to attack mainland Iran. In this month, the empress of Russia died and her successor Paul, who detested that the Zubovs had other plans for the army, ordered the troops to retreat to Russia. This reversal aroused the frustration and enmity of the powerful Zubovs and other officers who took part in the campaign: many of them would be among the conspirators who arranged Paul’s murder five years later.^[39]

Relations with Western Europe[edit]

Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She refused the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp which had ports on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and refrained from having a Russian army in Germany. Instead she pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the 19th and early 20th centuries as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–1779) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780, she established a League of Armed Neutrality, designed to defend neutral shipping from being searched by the British Royal Navy during the American Revolutionary War.

From 1788 to 1790, Russia fought a war against Sweden, a conflict instigated by Catherine’s cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to overrun the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottoman Turks, and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia’s Baltic Fleet checked the Royal Swedish navy in the tied Battle of Hogland (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the Theatre War). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Svensksund in 1790, the parties signed the Treaty of Värälä (14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the Treaty of Åbo. Russia was to stop any involvement in internal affairs of Sweden. Large sums were paid to Gustav III. Peace ensued for 20 years in spite of the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.^[40]

Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[edit]

In 1764, Catherine placed Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, her former lover, on the Polish throne. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from the King Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in carrying it out in the 1790s. In 1768, she formally became the protector of political rights of dissidents and peasants of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an anti-Russian uprising in Poland, the Confederation of Bar (1768–1772), supported by France. After the rebels, their French and European volunteers, and their allied Ottoman Empire had been defeated, she established in the Commonwealth a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a Permanent Council, under the supervision of her ambassadors and envoys.^[41]

Being afraid of the May Constitution of Poland (1791) that might lead to a resurgence in the power of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to refrain from her planned intervention into France and to intervene in Poland instead. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the Targowica Confederation. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the Polish–Russian War of 1792 and in the Kościuszko Uprising (1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795).^[42]

Relations with China[edit]

The Qianlong Emperor of China was committed to an expansionist policy in Central Asia and saw the Russian Empire as a potential rival, making for difficult and unfriendly relations between Beijing and Saint Petersburg.^[43] In 1762, he unilaterally abrogated the Treaty of Kyakhta, which governed the caravan trade between the two empires.^[44] Another source of tension was the wave of Dzungar Mongol fugitives from the Chinese state who took refuge with the Russians.^[45] The Dzungar genocide which was committed by the Qing state had led many Dzungars to seek sanctuary in the Russian Empire, and it was also one of the reasons for the abrogation of the Treaty of Kyakhta. Catherine perceived that the Qianlong Emperor was an unpleasant and arrogant neighbour, once saying: «I shall not die until I have ejected the Turks from Europe, suppressed the pride of China and established trade with India».^[45] In a 1790 letter to Baron de Grimm written in French, she called the Qianlong Emperor «mon voisin chinois aux petits yeux» («my Chinese neighbour with small eyes»).^[43]

Relations with Japan[edit]

In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with Japan to the south for supplies and food. In 1783, storms drove a Japanese sea captain, Daikokuya Kōdayū, ashore in the Aleutian Islands, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Daikokuya an audience at Tsarskoye Selo. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by Adam Laxman. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed.^[46]

The evaluation of foreign policy[edit]

Nicholas I, her grandson, evaluated the foreign policy of Catherine the Great as a dishonest one.^[47] Catherine failed to reach any of the initial goals she had put forward. Her foreign policy lacked a long-term strategy and from the very start was characterised by a series of mistakes. She lost the large territories of the Russian protectorate of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania and left its territories to Prussia and Austria. The Commonwealth had become the Russian protectorate since the reign of Peter I, but he did not intervene into the problem of political freedoms of dissidents advocating for their religious freedoms only. Catherine did turn Russia into a global great power not only a European one but with quite a different reputation from what she initially had planned as an honest policy. The global trade by Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia. Her dynasty lost power because of this and of a war with Austria and Germany, impossible without her foreign policy.^[48]

Economics and finance[edit]

Russian economic development was well below the standards in western Europe. Historian François Cruzet writes that Russia under Catherine:

had neither a free peasantry, nor a significant middle class, nor legal norms hospitable to private enterprise. Still, there was a start of industry, mainly textiles around Moscow and ironworks in the Ural Mountains, with a labour force mainly of serfs, bound to the works.^[49]

Catherine imposed a comprehensive system of state regulation of merchants’ activities. It was a failure because it narrowed and stifled entrepreneurship and did not reward economic development.^[50] She had more success when she strongly encouraged the migration of the Volga Germans, farmers from Germany who settled mostly in the Volga River Valley region. They indeed helped modernise the sector that totally dominated the Russian economy. They introduced numerous innovations regarding wheat production and flour milling, tobacco culture, sheep raising, and small-scale manufacturing.^[51]

In 1768, the Assignation Bank was given the task of issuing the first government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded upon the presentation of those notes. The emergence of these assignation roubles was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation roubles circulated on equal footing with the silver rouble; a market exchange rate for these two currencies was ongoing. The use of these notes continued until 1849.^[52]

Catherine paid a great deal of attention to financial reform, and relied heavily on the advice of Prince A. A. Viazemski. She found that piecemeal reform worked poorly because there was no overall view of a comprehensive state budget. Money was needed for wars and necessitated the junking the old financial institutions. A key principle was responsibilities defined by function. It was instituted by the Fundamental Law of 7 November 1775. Vaizemski’s Office of State Revenue took centralised control and by 1781, the government possessed its first approximation of a state budget.^[52]

Government organisation[edit]

Catherine made public health a priority. She made use of the social theory ideas of German cameralism and French physiocracy, as well as Russian precedents and experiments such as foundling homes. She launched the Moscow Foundling Home and lying-in hospital, 1764, and Paul’s Hospital, 1763. She had the government collect and publish vital statistics. In 1762 called on the army to upgrade its medical services. She established a centralised medical administration charged with initiating vigorous health policies. Catherine decided to have herself inoculated against smallpox by Thomas Dimsdale, a British doctor. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Her son Pavel later was inoculated as well. Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire and stated: «My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger».^[53] By 1800, approximately 2 million inoculations (almost 6% of the population) were administered in the Russian Empire. Historians consider her efforts to be a success.^[54]

Serfs[edit]

According to a census taken from 1754 to 1762, Catherine owned 500,000 serfs. A further 2.8 million belonged to the Russian state.^[55]

Rights and conditions[edit]

At the time of Catherine’s reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land their parents had. Even before the rule of Catherine, serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom.^[56] The understanding of law in Imperial Russia by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as to accumulate wealth. To become serfs, people conceded their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and support in times of hardship. In addition, they received land to till, but were taxed a certain percentage of their crops to give to their landowners. These were the privileges a serf was entitled to and that nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine’s reign, and this is the system she inherited.

Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom. If a noble did not live up to his side of the deal, the serfs could file complaints against him by following the proper channels of law.^[57] Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this because she did not want to be bothered by the peasantry, but did not want to give them reason to revolt. In this act, she gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status they had lacked before.^[58] Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs.^[59] Some serfs did apply for freedom and were successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles, but this was by no means universal.

Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals.^[60] The only thing a noble could not do to his serfs was to kill them. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters), they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during Catherine’s reign, but she signed legislation prohibiting it.^[57] Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, she took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.^[61]

While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school as well as employ them at businesses that paid wages.^[62] This happened more often during Catherine’s reign because of the new schools she established. Only in this way apart from conscription to the army could a serf leave the farm for which he was responsible but this was used for selling serfs to people who could not own them legally because of absence of nobility abroad.

Attitudes towards Catherine[edit]

The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one.^[63]
However, if the empress’ policies were too extreme or too disliked, she was not considered the true empress. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this «fake» empress with the «true» empress, whoever she may be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to convey their message. However, usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the empress, they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned empress and misinterpreting her decrees.^[64] However, they were already suspicious of Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church.^[65] Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were confused as to the circumstances of her accession to the throne.^[66]

The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including crop failure, and epidemics, especially a major epidemic in 1771. The nobles were imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767.^[67] Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during Pugachev’s Rebellion of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true empress because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time they followed a pretender under Catherine’s reign.^[68] Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real emperor should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause.^[69] With all this discontent in mind, Catherine did rule for 10 years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as Pugachev’s. The rebellion ultimately failed and in fact backfired as Catherine was pushed away from the idea of serf liberation following the violent uprising. Under Catherine’s rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontented.

Arts and culture[edit]

Catherine was a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The Hermitage Museum, which now occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine’s personal collection. The empress was a great lover of art and books, and ordered the construction of the Hermitage in 1770 to house her expanding collection of paintings, sculpture, and books.^[70] By 1790, the Hermitage was home to 38,000 books, 10,000 gems and 10,000 drawings. Two wings were devoted to her collections of «curiosities».^[71] She ordered the planting of the first «English garden» at Tsarskoye Selo in May 1770.^[70] In a letter to Voltaire in 1772, she wrote: «Right now I adore English gardens, curves, gentle slopes, ponds in the form of lakes, archipelagos on dry land, and I have a profound scorn for straight lines, symmetric avenues. I hate fountains that torture water in order to make it take a course contrary to its nature: Statues are relegated to galleries, vestibules etc.; in a word, Anglomania is the master of my plantomania».^[72]

Catherine shared in the general European craze for all things Chinese, and made a point of collecting Chinese art and buying porcelain in the popular Chinoiserie style.^[73] Between 1762 and 1766, she had built the «Chinese Palace» at Oranienbaum which reflected the chinoiserie style of architecture and gardening.^[73] The Chinese Palace was designed by the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi who specialised in the chinoiserie style.^[73] In 1779, she hired the Scottish architect Charles Cameron to build the Chinese Village at Tsarskoye Selo (modern Pushkin, Saint Petersburg).^[73] Catherine had at first attempted to hire a Chinese architect to build the Chinese Village, and on finding that was impossible, settled on Cameron, who likewise specialised in the chinoiserie style.^[73]

She made a special effort to bring leading intellectuals and scientists to Russia, and she wrote her own comedies, works of fiction, and memoirs. She worked with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert – all French encyclopedists who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, became foreign members of the Free Economic Society, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She recruited the scientists Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas from Berlin and Anders Johan Lexell from Sweden to the Russian capital.^[74][75]

Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her «The Star of the North» and the «Semiramis of Russia» (in reference to the legendary Queen of Babylon, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Although she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the National Library of Russia.^[76]

Catherine read three sorts of books, namely those for pleasure, those for information, and those to provide her with a philosophy.^[77] In the first category, she read romances and comedies that were popular at the time, many of which were regarded as «inconsequential» by the critics both then and since.^[77] She especially liked the work of German comic writers such as Moritz August von Thümmel and Christoph Friedrich Nicolai.^[77] In the second category fell the work of Denis Diderot, Jacques Necker, Johann Bernhard Basedow and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon.^[78] Catherine expressed some frustration with the economists she read for what she regarded as their impractical theories, writing in the margin of one of Necker’s books that if it was possible to solve all of the state’s economic problems in one day, she would have done so a long time ago.^[78] For information about particular nations that interested her, she read Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville’s Memoirs de Chine to learn about the vast and wealthy Chinese empire that bordered her empire; François Baron de Tott’s Memoires de les Turcs et les Tartares for information about the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean khanate; the books of Frederick the Great praising himself to learn about Frederick just as much as to learn about Prussia; and the pamphlets of Benjamin Franklin denouncing the British Crown to understand the reasons behind the American Revolution.^[78] In the third category fell the work of Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, Ferdinando Galiani, Nicolas Baudeau, and Sir William Blackstone.^[79] For philosophy, she liked books promoting what has been called «enlightened despotism», which she embraced as her ideal of an autocratic but reformist government that operated according to the rule of law, not the whims of the ruler, hence her interest in Blackstone’s legal commentaries.^[79]

Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French Encyclopédie on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called together at Moscow a Grand Commission – almost a consultative parliament – composed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles, burghers, and peasants) and of various nationalities. The commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The empress prepared the «Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly», pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially Montesquieu and Cesare Beccaria.^[80][81]

As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisors, she refrained from immediately putting them into practice. After holding more than 200 sittings, the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.

Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775, the empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire. The statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts were created, government officials numbering more than double this were appointed, and spending on local government increased sixfold. In 1785, Catherine conferred on the nobility the Charter to the Nobility, increasing the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statute of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing «little by little».^[82]

During Catherine’s reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the Russian Enlightenment. Gavrila Derzhavin, Denis Fonvizin and Ippolit Bogdanovich laid the groundwork for the great writers of the 19th century, especially for Alexander Pushkin. Catherine became a great patron of Russian opera. Alexander Radishchev published his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1790, shortly after the start of the French Revolution. He warned of uprisings in Russia because of the deplorable social conditions of the serfs. Catherine decided it promoted the dangerous poison of the French Revolution. She had the book burned and the author exiled to Siberia.^[83][84]

Catherine also received Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun at her Tsarskoye Selo residence in St Petersburg, by whom she was painted shortly before her death. Madame Vigée Le Brun vividly describes the empress in her memoirs:^[85]

the sight of this famous woman so impressed me that I found it impossible to think of anything: I could only stare at her. Firstly I was very surprised at her small stature; I had imagined her to be very tall, as great as her fame. She was also very fat, but her face was still beautiful, and she wore her white hair up, framing it perfectly. Her genius seemed to rest on her forehead, which was both high and wide. Her eyes were soft and sensitive, her nose quite Greek, her colour high and her features expressive. She addressed me immediately in a voice full of sweetness, if a little throaty: «I am delighted to welcome you here, Madame, your reputation runs before you. I am very fond of the arts, especially painting. I am no connoisseur, but I am a great art lover.»

Madame Vigée Le Brun also describes the empress at a gala:^[85]

The double doors opened and the Empress appeared. I have said that she was quite small, and yet on the days when she made her public appearances, with her head held high, her eagle-like stare and a countenance accustomed to command, all this gave her such an air of majesty that to me she might have been Queen of the World; she wore the sashes of three orders, and her costume was both simple and regal; it consisted of a muslin tunic embroidered with gold fastened by a diamond belt, and the full sleeves were folded back in the Asiatic style. Over this tunic she wore a red velvet dolman with very short sleeves. The bonnet which held her white hair was not decorated with ribbons, but with the most beautiful diamonds.

Education[edit]

Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia.^[86] She believed a ‘new kind of person’ could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.^[87]

Catherine appointed Ivan Betskoy as her advisor on educational matters.^[88] Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey, and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British education pioneers, particularly the Rev. Daniel Dumaresq and Dr John Brown.^[89] In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs.^[90] However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission’s problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state’s control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the «proper and effectual education of the female sex»; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes.^[91] This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a ‘new kind of people’ raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment.^[92] The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.^[93]

Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of John Locke, and founded the famous Smolny Institute in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well.^[94] The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute’s philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.^[95]

From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system.^[96] However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the guberniya – a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor – on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.^[97]

By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries.^[98] One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician, Franz Aepinus. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels.

In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under Pyotr Zavadovsky. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created.^[99] The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in guberniya capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the «Guide to Teachers». This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.^[99]

Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program.^[100] Two years after the implementation of Catherine’s program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical^{[clarification needed]} methods. Yet by the end of Catherine’s reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.^[101]

Religious affairs[edit]

Catherine’s apparent embrace of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion. She nationalised all of the church lands to help pay for her wars, largely emptied the monasteries, and forced most of the remaining clergymen to survive as farmers or from fees for baptisms and other services. Very few members of the nobility entered the church, which became even less important than it had been. She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.^[102]

However, in accord with her anti-Ottoman policy, Catherine promoted the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule. She placed strictures on Catholics (ukaz of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland.^[103] Nevertheless, Catherine’s Russia provided an asylum and a base for regrouping to the Jesuits following the suppression of the Jesuits in most of Europe in 1773.^[103]

Islam[edit]

Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. She avoided force and tried persuasion (and money) to integrate Muslim areas into her empire.^[104] Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary incentives. Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy. However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.^{[citation needed]} Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry became too disruptive. After the «Toleration of All Faiths» Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build mosques and practise all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to Mecca, which previously had been denied. Catherine created the Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly to help regulate Muslim-populated regions as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government as a way of regulating religious affairs.^{[105][additional citation(s) needed]}

In 1785, Catherine approved the subsidising of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic people who wandered through southern Russia. In 1786, she assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system under government regulation. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.^[106]

Judaism[edit]

Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a Jew is because the term meant many things during her reign.^[107] Judaism was a small, if not non-existent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the First Partition of Poland, the large new Jewish element was treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. Catherine separated the Jews from Orthodox society, restricting them to the Pale of Settlement. She levied additional taxes on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Orthodox faith, that additional tax was lifted.^[108] Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule.^[109][110]

In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia’s economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782.^[111] Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres, even under the guise of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow’s middle class.^[112]

In 1785, Catherine declared Jews to be officially foreigners, with foreigners’ rights.^[113] This re-established the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish Haskalah. Catherine’s decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians.

Russian Orthodoxy[edit]

In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started. The church’s lands were expropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the Collegium of Accounting.^[114] Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the original intended amount.^[115] She closed 569 of 954 monasteries, of which only 161 received government money. Only 400,000 roubles of church wealth were paid back.^[116] While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat.^[115] Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine’s reign.^[102]

In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the Old Believers, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practise their faith openly without interference.^[117] While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Old Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764, she deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith.^[117] In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia.^[118][119]

Religious education was reviewed strictly. At first, she attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786, Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.^[120] By separating the public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.^[115]

Personal life[edit]

Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates.^[121][122] The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10% in 1767 to 11% in 1781 to 14% in 1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs from 1762 to 1772, 202,000 from 1773 to 1793, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795.^[123]: 119 Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. In 1767, Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants automatically would be promoted regardless of office or merit.^[124]

After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigory Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov and Nicholas Alexander Suk).^[125] Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 rubles, a pension of 5,000 rubles, and 4,000 peasants in Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777.^[126] The last of her lovers, Platon Zubov, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the legends about her.^[127]

Catherine kept her illegitimate son by Grigory Orlov (Alexis Bobrinsky, later elevated to Count Bobrinsky by Paul I) near Tula, away from her court.

Elite acceptance of a female ruler was more of an issue in Western Europe than in Russia. The British ambassador James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury, reported back to London:

Her Majesty has a masculine force of mind, obstinacy in adhering to a plan, and intrepidity in the execution of it; but she wants the more manly virtues of deliberation, forbearance in prosperity and accuracy of judgment, while she possesses in a high degree the weaknesses vulgarly attributed to her sex—love of flattery, and its inseparable companion, vanity; an inattention to unpleasant but salutary advice; and a propensity to voluptuousness which leads to excesses that would debase a female character in any sphere of life.^[128]

Poniatowski[edit]

Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, the British ambassador to Russia, offered Stanislaus Poniatowski a place in the embassy in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother’s side, came from the Czartoryski family, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland; Poniatowski and Catherine were eighth cousins, twice removed, by their mutual ancestor King Christian I of Denmark, by virtue of Poniatowski’s maternal descent from the Scottish House of Stuart. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, therefore well before encountering the Orlov brothers. In 1757, Poniatowski served in the British Army during the Seven Years’ War, thus severing close relationships with Catherine.^{[citation needed]} She bore him a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia, the daughter of Peter I’s second marriage), although she was legally regarded as Grand Duke Peter’s.^[129]

King Augustus III of Poland died in 1763, so Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king. She sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as king. Poniatowski accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine’s control. News of Catherine’s plan spread, and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her. She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov’s child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then.

Prussia (through the agency of Prince Henry), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under Maria Theresa) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 52,000 km² (20,000 sq mi) among them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less, Riga–Polotsk–Mogilev. In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of Minsk almost to Kiev and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of steppe down south in front of Ochakov, on the Black Sea. Later uprisings in Poland led to the third partition in 1795. Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation^[130] until its post-WWI reconstitution.

Orlov[edit]

Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the Streltsy Uprising (1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter’s pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine’s husband, the Grand Duke Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 coup d’état against her husband, but she preferred to remain the dowager empress of Russia rather than marrying anyone.

Grigory Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts, but Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in Saint Petersburg when Catherine became empress.

Orlov died in 1783. Their son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762–1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeyeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798–1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin (London, England, 1784–1842) who took part in the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) against Napoleon, and later served as ambassador in Turin, the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Potemkin[edit]

Grigory Potemkin was involved in the palace coup of 1762. In 1772, Catherine’s close friends informed her of Orlov’s affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773, the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine’s son Paul had started gaining support; both of these trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for help – mostly military – and he became devoted to her.

In 1772, Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General Aleksandr Bibikov to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin’s advice on military strategy. Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became the de facto absolute ruler of New Russia, governing its colonisation.

In 1780, Emperor Joseph II, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg. Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists.

Catherine was worried that Potemkin’s poor health would delay his important work in colonising and developing the south as he had planned. He died at the age of 52 in 1791.^[131]

Final months and death[edit]

Though Catherine’s life and reign included remarkable personal successes, they ended in two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed), King Gustav IV Adolf, visited her in September 1796, the empress’s intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept that Alexandra would not convert to Lutheranism, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. The frustration affected Catherine’s health. She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony which would establish her favourite grandson Alexander as her heir, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.^[132]

On 16 November [O.S. 5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady’s maid, Maria Perekusikhina, that she had slept better than she had in a long time.^[133] Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured.^[133] The court physician diagnosed a stroke^[133][134] and despite attempts to revive her she fell into a coma. She was given the last rites and died the following evening around 9:45.^[134] An autopsy confirmed a stroke as the cause of death.^[135]

Later, several rumours circulated regarding the cause and manner of her death. The most famous of these rumors is that she died after having sex with her horse. This rumor was widely circulated by satirical British and French publications at the time of her death. In his 1647 book Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise (Description of the Muscovite and Persian journey), German scholar Adam Olearius^[136] Olearius’s claims about a supposed Russian tendency towards bestiality with horses was often repeated in anti-Russian literature throughout the 17th and 18th centuries to illustrate the alleged barbarous «Asian» nature of Russia. Given the frequency which this story was repeated together with Catherine’s love of her adopted homeland and her love of horses, it is likely that these details were conflated into this rumor. Catherine had been targeted for being unmarried.^[137]

Catherine’s undated will, discovered in early 1792 among her papers by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky, gave specific instructions should she die: «Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better.»^[138] In the end, the empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver brocade dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery’s chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by Antonio Rinaldi.^[139][140] According to Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun: «The empress’s body lay in state for six weeks in a large and magnificently decorated room in the castle, which was kept lit day and night. Catherine was stretched on a ceremonial bed surrounded by the coats of arms of all the towns in Russia. Her face was left uncovered, and her fair hand rested on the bed. All the ladies, some of whom took turn to watch by the body, would go and kiss this hand, or at least appear to.» A description of the empress’s funeral is written in Madame Vigée Le Brun’s memoirs.

Issue[edit]

Name	Lifespan	Notes
Miscarriage	20 December 1752	According to court gossip, this lost pregnancy was attributed to Sergei Saltykov.[141]
Miscarriage	30 June 1753	This second lost pregnancy was also attributed to Saltykov;[141] this time she was very ill for 13 days. Catherine later wrote in her memoirs: «…They suspect that part of the afterbirth has not come away … on the 13th day it came out by itself».[142][143]
Paul (I) Petrovich Emperor of Russia	1 October 1754 – 23 March 1801 (Age: 46)	Born at the Winter Palace, officially he was a son of Peter III but in her memoirs, Catherine implies very strongly that Saltykov was the biological father of the child.[144] He married firstly Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1773 and had no issue. He married secondly, in 1776, Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg and had issue, including the future Alexander I of Russia and Nicholas I of Russia. He succeeded as emperor of Russia in 1796 and was murdered at Saint Michael’s Castle in 1801.
Anna Petrovna Grand Duchess of Russia	9 December 1757 – 8 March 1759 (Age: 15 months)	Possibly the offspring of Catherine and Stanislaus Poniatowski, Anna was born at the Winter Palace between 10 and 11 o’clock;[145] she was named by Empress Elizabeth after her deceased sister, against Catherine’s wishes.[146] On 17 December 1757, Anna was baptised and received the Great Cross of the Order of Saint Catherine.[147] Elizabeth served as godmother; she held Anna above the baptismal font and brought Catherine, who did not witness any of the celebrations, and Peter a gift of 60,000 rubles.[146] Elizabeth took Anna and raised the baby herself, as she had done with Paul.[148] In her memoirs, Catherine makes no mention of Anna’s death on 8 March 1759,[149] though she was inconsolable and entered a state of shock.[150] Anna’s funeral took place on 15 March, at Alexander Nevsky Lavra. After the funeral, Catherine never mentioned her dead daughter again.[151]
Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky [ru] Count Bobrinsky	11 April 1762 – 20 June 1813 (Age: 51)	Born at the Winter Palace, he was brought up at Bobriki; his father was Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov. He married Baroness Anna Dorothea von Ungern-Sternberg and had issue. Created Count Bobrinsky in 1796, he died in 1813.
Elizabeth Grigorevna Temkina (alleged daughter)	13 July 1775 – 25 May 1854 (Age: 78)	Born many years after the death of Catherine’s husband, brought up in the Samoilov household as Grigory Potemkin’s daughter, and never acknowledged by Catherine, it has been suggested that Temkina was the illegitimate child of Catherine and Potemkin, but this is now regarded as unlikely.[152]

Title[edit]

The Manifesto of 1763 begins with Catherine’s title:

We, Catherine the second, by the Grace of God, Empress and Autocrat of all the Russians at Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsarina of Kasan, Tsarina of Astrachan, Tsarina of Siberia, Lady of Pleskow and Grand Duchess of Smolensko, Duchess of Estonia and Livland, Carelial, Tver, Yugoria, Permia, Viatka and Bulgaria and others; Lady and Grand Duchess of Novgorod in the Netherland of Chernigov, Resan, Rostov, Yaroslav, Beloosrial, Udoria, Obdoria, Condinia, and Ruler of the entire North region and Lady of the Yurish, of the Cartalinian and Grusinian tsars and the Cabardinian land, of the Cherkessian and Gorsian princes and the lady of the manor and sovereign of many others.^[153]

Archives[edit]

Empress Catherine’s correspondence with Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, (the father of Catherine’s daughter-in-law Maria Feodorovna) written between 1768 and 1795, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.^[154]

In popular culture[edit]

• Empress Catherine appears as a character in Lord Byron’s unfinished mock-heroic poem Don Juan.
• She was a subject in The Royal Diaries series in the book Catherine: The Great Journey, Russia, 1743–1745 by Kristiana Gregory.
• The Empress is parodied in Offenbach’s operetta La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein (1867).^[155]
• Ernst Lubitsch’s silent film Forbidden Paradise (1924) told the story of Catherine’s romance with an officer.
• Marlene Dietrich portrayed Catherine the Great in the film The Scarlet Empress (1934).
• The Rise of Catherine the Great (1934) is a film starring Elisabeth Bergner and Douglas Fairbanks Jr.
• Lubitsch remade his 1924 silent film as the sound film A Royal Scandal (1945), also known as Czarina.
• Mae West published Catherine Was Great in 1944, starring in it then and in subsequent productions.
• Jeanne Moreau played a version of Catherine in the farce comedy film Great Catherine (1968).
• The British/Canadian/American TV miniseries Young Catherine (1991), starring Julia Ormond as Catherine and Vanessa Redgrave as Empress Elizabeth, is based on Catherine’s early life.
• The television movie Catherine the Great (1995) stars Catherine Zeta-Jones as Catherine and Jeanne Moreau as Empress Elizabeth.
• Actress Olga Antonova played the role of the Empress in the 2000 film The Captain’s Daughter, based on the novel of the same name by Alexander Pushkin.
• Her rise to power and reign are portrayed in the award-winning Russia-1 television series Ekaterina, which has been extended for a second season in 2017 and a third season in 2019.
• The Channel One Russia television series Catherine the Great was released in 2015.
• The song «Catherine the Great» from the album Foreverland by The Divine Comedy was released as a single on the 24th of June, 2016.
• Catherine (portrayed by Meghan Tonjes) is featured in the web series Epic Rap Battles of History, in the episode «Alexander the Great vs. Ivan the Terrible» (12 July 2016), pitted against the titular characters, as well as Frederick the Great and Pompey the Great.^[156]
• The television miniseries Catherine the Great (2019) stars Helen Mirren.
• She is portrayed by Elle Fanning in the Hulu television series The Great (2020).
• She appears as a leader of the Russian civilization in Civilization games II, III, IV and V.

Ancestry[edit]

See also[edit]

• Legends of Catherine the Great
• Potemkin village
• Family tree of Russian monarchs

References[edit]

Explanatory notes[edit]

Citations[edit]

General and cited sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

• Catherine the Great on In Our Time at the BBC
• Some of the code of laws mentioned above, along with other information
• Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II, inviting foreign immigration at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 March 2004)
• Information about the Battle of Svenskund and the war
• Biography of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
• Briefly about Catherine: The Enlightened Despots at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 June 2012)
• Family tree of the ancestors of Catherine the Great at the Wayback Machine (archived 11 September 2007) (in Russian)
• Douglas Smith, Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 August 2011)
• Diaries and Letters: Catherine II – German Princess Who Came to Rule Russia at the Wayback Machine (archived 29 June 2015)^{[self-published source]}
• «Catherine II.» . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
• «Catharine II.» . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
• Romanovs. The fifth film. Peter III; Catherine II on YouTube – Historical reconstruction «The Romanovs». StarMedia. Babich-Design (Russia, 2013)

Catherine the Great House of Anhalt Born: 2 May 1729 Died: 17 November 1796
Regnal titles
Preceded by Peter III	Empress of Russia 9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796	Succeeded by Paul I
Russian royalty
Vacant Title last held by Martha Skowrońska	Empress consort of Russia 5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762	Vacant Title next held by Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg

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