Helium | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Pronunciation | (HEE-lee-əm) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Appearance | colorless gas, exhibiting a gray, cloudy glow (or reddish-orange if an especially high voltage is used) when placed in an electric field | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight Ar°(He) |
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Helium in the periodic table | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Atomic number (Z) | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Group | group 18 (noble gases) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Period | period 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Block | s-block | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electron configuration | 1s2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electrons per shell | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Physical properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Phase at STP | gas | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Melting point | 0.95 K (−272.20 °C, −457.96 °F) (at 2.5 MPa) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Boiling point | 4.222 K (−268.928 °C, −452.070 °F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Density (at STP) | 0.1786 g/L | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
when liquid (at m.p.) | 0.145 g/cm3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
when liquid (at b.p.) | 0.125 g/cm3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Triple point | 2.177 K, 5.043 kPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Critical point | 5.1953 K, 0.22746 MPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of fusion | 0.0138 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of vaporization | 0.0829 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar heat capacity | 20.78 J/(mol·K)[2] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure (defined by ITS-90)
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Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Oxidation states | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electronegativity | Pauling scale: no data | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ionization energies |
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Covalent radius | 28 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Van der Waals radius | 140 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spectral lines of helium |
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Other properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Natural occurrence | primordial | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Crystal structure | hexagonal close-packed (hcp) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Speed of sound | 972 m/s | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thermal conductivity | 0.1513 W/(m⋅K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Magnetic ordering | diamagnetic[3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar magnetic susceptibility | −1.88×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CAS Number | 7440-59-7 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Naming | after Helios, Greek god of the Sun | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Discovery | Pierre Janssen, Norman Lockyer (1868) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
First isolation | William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve, Abraham Langlet (1895) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Main isotopes of helium
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Category: Helium
| references |
Helium (from Greek: ἥλιος, romanized: helios, lit. ‘sun’) is a chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table.[a] Its boiling and melting point are the lowest among all the elements. It is the second lightest and second most abundant element in the observable universe, after hydrogen. It is present at about 24% of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this in both the Sun and in Jupiter, due to the very high nuclear binding energy (per nucleon) of helium-4, with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. The most common isotope of helium in the universe is helium-4, the vast majority of which was formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are created by nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.
Helium was first detected as an unknown, yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet,[11] Captain C. T. Haig,[12] Norman R. Pogson,[13] and Lieutenant John Herschel,[14] and was subsequently confirmed by French astronomer Jules Janssen.[15] Janssen is often jointly credited with detecting the element, along with Norman Lockyer. Janssen recorded the helium spectral line during the solar eclipse of 1868, while Lockyer observed it from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, which he named. The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by chemists Sir William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve, and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore, cleveite, which is now not regarded as a separate mineral species, but as a variety of uraninite.[16][17] In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, by far the largest supplier of the gas today.
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, absorbing about a quarter of production), and in the cooling of superconducting magnets, with its main commercial application in MRI scanners. Helium’s other industrial uses—as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc welding, and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—account for half of the gas produced. A well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.[18] As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid phases of helium-4 (helium I and helium II) is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, produced in matter near absolute zero.
On Earth, it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium, although there are other examples), as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations as great as 7% by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation. Terrestrial helium is a non-renewable resource because once released into the atmosphere, it promptly escapes into space. Its supply is thought to be rapidly diminishing.[19][20] However, some studies suggest that helium produced deep in the earth by radioactive decay can collect in natural gas reserves in larger than expected quantities,[21] in some cases, having been released by volcanic activity.[22]
History
Scientific discoveries
The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.[23][24] This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which, he named the D3 because it was near the known D1 and D2 Fraunhofer line lines of sodium.[25][26] He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).[27][28]
In 1881, Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detected helium on Earth for the first time through its D3 spectral line, when he analyzed a material that had been sublimated during a recent eruption of Mount Vesuvius.[29]
The cleveite sample from which Ramsay first purified helium[30]
On March 26, 1895, Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10% rare-earth elements) with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas, liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun.[26][31][32][33] These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes.[34][35] It was independently isolated from cleveite, in the same year, by chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet, in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight.[36][37][24][38] Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist, William Francis Hillebrand, prior to Ramsay’s discovery, when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogen.[39] His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery, and near-discovery, in science.[40]
In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei, by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin, glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube, to study the spectrum of the new gas inside.[41] In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than 5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F).[42][43] He tried to solidify it, by further reducing the temperature, but failed, because helium does not solidify at atmospheric pressure. Onnes’ student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926 by applying additional external pressure.[44][45]
In 1913, Niels Bohr published his «trilogy»[46][47] on atomic structure that included a reconsideration of the Pickering–Fowler series as central evidence in support of his model of the atom.[48][49] This series is named for Edward Charles Pickering, who in 1896 published observations of previously unknown lines in the spectrum of the star ζ Puppis[50] (these are now known to occur with Wolf–Rayet and other hot stars).[51] Pickering attributed the observation (lines at 4551, 5411, and 10123 Å) to a new form of hydrogen with half-integer transition levels.[52][53] In 1912, Alfred Fowler[54] managed to produce similar lines from a hydrogen-helium mixture, and supported Pickering’s conclusion as to their origin.[55] Bohr’s model does not allow for half-integer transitions (nor does quantum mechanics) and Bohr concluded that Pickering and Fowler were wrong, and instead assigned these spectral lines to ionised helium, He+.[56] Fowler was initially skeptical[57] but was ultimately convinced[58] that Bohr was correct,[46] and by 1915 «spectroscopists had transferred [the Pickering–Fowler series] definitively [from hydrogen] to helium.»[49][59] Bohr’s theoretical work on the Pickering series had demonstrated the need for «a re-examination of problems that seemed already to have been solved within classical theories» and provided important confirmation for his atomic theory.[49]
In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity.[60] This phenomenon is related to Bose–Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zero, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.[61]
Extraction and use
After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence where, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas.[24][62] With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium.[63][64] This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas.[65]
This enabled the United States to become the world’s leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the United States Navy sponsored three small experimental helium plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 5,700 m3 (200,000 cu ft) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though less than a cubic meter of the gas had previously been obtained.[26] Some of this gas was used in the world’s first helium-filled airship, the U.S. Navy’s C-class blimp C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia, to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1921,[66] nearly two years before the Navy’s first rigid helium-filled airship, the Naval Aircraft Factory-built USS Shenandoah, flew in September 1923.
Although the extraction process using low-temperature gas liquefaction was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft. During World War II, the demand increased for helium for lifting gas and for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.[67]
The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas, with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime.[26] Because of the Helium Act of 1925, which banned the export of scarce helium on which the US then had a production monopoly, together with the prohibitive cost of the gas, the Hindenburg, like all German Zeppelins, was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. The helium market after World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.[68]
After the «Helium Acts Amendments of 1960» (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau built a 425-mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants with the government’s partially depleted Cliffside gas field near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, at which time it was further purified.[69]
By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve.[24][70] The resulting Helium Privatization Act of 1996[71] (Public Law 104–273) directed the United States Department of the Interior to empty the reserve, with sales starting by 2005.[72]
Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.[73]
For many years, the United States produced more than 90% of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria, producing 17 million cubic meters (600 million cubic feet) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe’s demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the U.S. had risen to more than 15 million kg per year.[74] In 2004–2006, additional plants in Ras Laffan, Qatar, and Skikda, Algeria were built. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium.[75] Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased.[76] From 2002 to 2007 helium prices doubled.[77]
As of 2012, the United States National Helium Reserve accounted for 30 percent of the world’s helium.[78] The reserve was expected to run out of helium in 2018.[78] Despite that, a proposed bill in the United States Senate would allow the reserve to continue to sell the gas. Other large reserves were in the Hugoton in Kansas, United States, and nearby gas fields of Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. New helium plants were scheduled to open in 2012 in Qatar, Russia, and the US state of Wyoming, but they were not expected to ease the shortage.[78]
In 2013, Qatar started up the world’s largest helium unit,[79] although the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis severely affected helium production there.[80] 2014 was widely acknowledged to be a year of over-supply in the helium business, following years of renowned shortages.[81] Nasdaq reported (2015) that for Air Products, an international corporation that sells gases for industrial use, helium volumes remain under economic pressure due to feedstock supply constraints.[82]
Characteristics
Atom
The helium atom. Depicted are the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case.
In quantum mechanics
In the perspective of quantum mechanics, helium is the second simplest atom to model, following the hydrogen atom. Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals surrounding a nucleus containing two protons and (usually) two neutrons. As in Newtonian mechanics, no system that consists of more than two particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical approach (see 3-body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus, numerical mathematical methods are required, even to solve the system of one nucleus and two electrons. Such computational chemistry methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical picture of helium electron binding which is accurate to within < 2% of the correct value, in a few computational steps.[83] Such models show that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Zeff which each electron sees is about 1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic «bare» helium nucleus.
Related stability of the helium-4 nucleus and electron shell
The nucleus of the helium-4 atom is identical with an alpha particle. High-energy electron-scattering experiments show its charge to decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does the charge density of helium’s own electron cloud. This symmetry reflects similar underlying physics: the pair of neutrons and the pair of protons in helium’s nucleus obey the same quantum mechanical rules as do helium’s pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject to a different nuclear binding potential), so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular momentum, and each cancelling the other’s intrinsic spin. Adding another of any of these particles would require angular momentum and would release substantially less energy (in fact, no nucleus with five nucleons is stable). This arrangement is thus energetically extremely stable for all these particles, and this stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature.
For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for the element’s chemical inertness, and also the lack of interaction of helium atoms with each other, producing the lowest melting and boiling points of all the elements.
In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium-4 nucleus, produced by similar effects, accounts for the ease of helium-4 production in atomic reactions that involve either heavy-particle emission or fusion. Some stable helium-3 (two protons and one neutron) is produced in fusion reactions from hydrogen, but it is a very small fraction compared to the highly favorable helium-4.
Binding energy per nucleon of common isotopes. The binding energy per particle of helium-4 is significantly larger than all nearby nuclides.
The unusual stability of the helium-4 nucleus is also important cosmologically: it explains the fact that in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as the «soup» of free protons and neutrons which had initially been created in about 6:1 ratio cooled to the point that nuclear binding was possible, almost all first compound atomic nuclei to form were helium-4 nuclei. Owing to the relatively tight binding of helium-4 nuclei, its production consumed nearly all of the free neutrons in a few minutes, before they could beta-decay, and thus few neutrons were available to form heavier atoms such as lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium-4 nuclear binding per nucleon is stronger than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and binding energy) and thus, once helium had been formed, no energetic drive was available to make elements 3, 4 and 5.[84] It is barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next element with a lower energy per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this process requires three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple alpha process). There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the few minutes after the Big Bang, before the early expanding universe cooled to the temperature and pressure point where helium fusion to carbon was no longer possible. This left the early universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen/helium as is observed today (3 parts hydrogen to 1 part helium-4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe trapped in helium-4.
All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or other life) have thus been created since the Big Bang in stars which were hot enough to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe’s ordinary matter—nearly all the ordinary matter that is not hydrogen.
Gas and plasma phases
Helium discharge tube shaped like the element’s atomic symbol
Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon, and thus the second least reactive of all elements.[85] It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Because of helium’s relatively low molar (atomic) mass, its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed in the gas phase are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For these reasons and the small size of helium monatomic molecules, helium diffuses through solids at a rate three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen.[26]
Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas,[86] and one of the least water-soluble of any gas (CF4, SF6, and C4F8 have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x2/10−5, respectively, versus helium’s 0.70797 x2/10−5),[87] and helium’s index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gas.[88] Helium has a negative Joule–Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule–Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.[26] Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.
Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium’s electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, the particles interact with the Earth’s magnetosphere, giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.[89]
Liquid phase
Liquefied helium. This helium is not only liquid, but has been cooled to the point of superfluidity. The drop of liquid at the bottom of the glass represents helium spontaneously escaping from the container over the side, to empty out of the container. The energy to drive this process is supplied by the potential energy of the falling helium.
Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K (about −272 °C or −457 °F) at about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure.[90] It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.[91] With a bulk modulus of about 27 MPa[92] it is ~100 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214±0.006 g/cm3 at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar (2.5 MPa) is 0.187±0.009 g/cm3.[93] At higher temperatures, helium will solidify with sufficient pressure. At room temperature, this requires about 114,000 atm.[94]
Helium I
Below its boiling point of 4.22 K (−268.93 °C; −452.07 °F) and above the lambda point of 2.1768 K (−270.9732 °C; −455.7518 °F), the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I.[26] Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium does not boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered further.
Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of Styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is.[26] This colorless liquid has a very low viscosity and a density of 0.145–0.125 g/mL (between about 0 and 4 K),[95] which is only one-fourth the value expected from classical physics.[26] Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both states of liquid helium (helium I and helium II) are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic properties.[26]
Helium II
Liquid helium below its lambda point (called helium II) exhibits very unusual characteristics. Due to its high thermal conductivity, when it boils, it does not bubble but rather evaporates directly from its surface. Helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about the properties of the isotope.[26]
Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.[26]
Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state (see: macroscopic quantum phenomena) of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10−7 to 10−8 m it has no measurable viscosity.[24] However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground state, which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid.[96]
In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.[97]
The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper.[26] This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second sound.[26]
Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin.[26][98][99] As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II’s ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force.[100] These waves are known as third sound.[101]
Isotopes
There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth’s atmosphere, one atom is 3
He for every million that are 4
He.[24] Unlike most elements, helium’s isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis.[102]
Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts. Most of it has been present since Earth’s formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust.[103] Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay of tritium.[104] Rocks from the Earth’s crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth’s mantle.[103] 3
He is much more abundant in stars as a product of nuclear fusion. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of 3
He to 4
He is about 100 times higher than on Earth.[105] Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon’s surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 10 ppb, much higher than the approximately 5 ppt found in the Earth’s atmosphere.[106][107] A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,[108] have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith, and use the helium-3 for fusion.
Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 K (−272.15 °C; −457.87 °F) using evaporative cooling in a 1-K pot. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in a helium-3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid 3
He and 4
He below 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statistics: helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3 atoms are fermions).[26] Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins.[109]
It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is the unbound helium-10 with a half-life of 2.6(4)×10−22 s.[110] Helium-6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half-life of 0.8 second. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain nuclear reactions.[26] Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.[26]
Properties
Table of thermal and physical properties of helium gas at atmospheric pressure:[111][112]
Temperature (K) | Density (kg/m^3) | Specific heat (kJ/kg °C) | Dynamic viscosity (kg/m s) | Kinematic viscosity (m^2/s) | Thermal conductivity (W/m °C) | Thermal diffusivity (m^2/s) | Prandtl Number |
100 | 5.193 | 9.63E-06 | 1.98E-05 | 0.073 | 2.89E-05 | 0.686 | |
120 | 0.406 | 5.193 | 1.07E-05 | 2.64E-05 | 0.0819 | 3.88E-05 | 0.679 |
144 | 0.3379 | 5.193 | 1.26E-05 | 3.71E-05 | 0.0928 | 5.28E-05 | 0.7 |
200 | 0.2435 | 5.193 | 1.57E-05 | 6.44E-05 | 0.1177 | 9.29E-05 | 0.69 |
255 | 0.1906 | 5.193 | 1.82E-05 | 9.55E-05 | 0.1357 | 1.37E-04 | 0.7 |
366 | 0.1328 | 5.193 | 2.31E-05 | 1.74E-04 | 0.1691 | 2.45E-04 | 0.71 |
477 | 0.10204 | 5.193 | 2.75E-05 | 2.69E-04 | 0.197 | 3.72E-04 | 0.72 |
589 | 0.08282 | 5.193 | 3.11E-05 | 3.76E-04 | 0.225 | 5.22E-04 | 0.72 |
700 | 0.07032 | 5.193 | 3.48E-05 | 4.94E-04 | 0.251 | 6.66E-04 | 0.72 |
800 | 0.06023 | 5.193 | 3.82E-05 | 6.34E-04 | 0.275 | 8.77E-04 | 0.72 |
900 | 0.05451 | 5.193 | 4.14E-05 | 7.59E-04 | 0.33 | 1.14E-03 | 0.687 |
1000 | 5.193 | 4.46E-05 | 9.14E-04 | 0.354 | 1.40E-03 | 0.654 |
Compounds
Structure of the suspected fluoroheliate anion, OHeF−
Helium has a valence of zero and is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions.[91] It is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential.[26] Helium can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur, and phosphorus when it is subjected to a glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or reduced to plasma by other means. The molecular compounds HeNe, HgHe10, and WHe2, and the molecular ions He+
2, He2+
2, HeH+
, and HeD+
have been created this way.[113] HeH+ is also stable in its ground state, but is extremely reactive—it is the strongest Brønsted acid known, and therefore can exist only in isolation, as it will protonate any molecule or counteranion it contacts. This technique has also produced the neutral molecule He2, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently held together only by polarization forces.[26]
Van der Waals compounds of helium can also be formed with cryogenic helium gas and atoms of some other substance, such as LiHe and He2.[114]
Theoretically, other true compounds may be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF, discovered in 2000.[115] Calculations show that two new compounds containing a helium-oxygen bond could be stable.[116] Two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and N(CH3)4FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable FHeO− anion first theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment, the only remaining element with no known stable compounds would be neon.[117]
Helium atoms have been inserted into the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable at high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside.[118] If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.[119] Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.
Under high pressures helium can form compounds with various other elements. Helium-nitrogen clathrate (He(N2)11) crystals have been grown at room temperature at pressures ca. 10 GPa in a diamond anvil cell.[120] The insulating electride Na2He has been shown to be thermodynamically stable at pressures above 113 GPa. It has a fluorite structure.[121]
Occurrence and production
Natural abundance
Although it is rare on Earth, helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe, constituting 23% of its baryonic mass. Only hydrogen is more abundant.[24] The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton–proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.[102]
In the Earth’s atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million.[122][123] The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth’s atmosphere escapes into space by several processes.[124][125][126] In the Earth’s heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements.
Most helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of uranium and thorium, including uraninite and its varieties cleveite and pitchblende,[16][127] carnotite and monazite (a group name; «monazite» usually refers to monazite-(Ce)),[128][129] because they emit alpha particles (helium nuclei, He2+) to which electrons immediately combine as soon as the particle is stopped by the rock. In this way an estimated 3000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere.[130][131][132] In the Earth’s crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in the subsurface under conditions that also trap natural gas, the greatest natural concentrations of helium on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is extracted. The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm to more than 7% in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico.[133][134]
As of 2021 the world’s helium reserves were estimated at 31 billion cubic meters, with a third of that being in Qatar.[135] In 2015 and 2016 additional probable reserves were announced to be under the Rocky Mountains in North America[136] and in the East African Rift.[137]
Modern extraction and distribution
For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which can contain as much as 7% helium.[138] Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.[26] The principal impurity in Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process. This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long-distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.[75][139]
In 2008, approximately 169 million standard cubic meters (SCM) of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves with approximately 78% from the United States, 10% from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia, Poland and Qatar.[140] By 2013, increases in helium production in Qatar (under the company Qatargas managed by Air Liquide) had increased Qatar’s fraction of world helium production to 25%, and made it the second largest exporter after the United States.[141]
An estimated 54 billion cubic feet (1.5×109 m3) deposit of helium was found in Tanzania in 2016.[142] A large-scale helium plant was opened in Ningxia, China in 2020.[143]
In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and the Panhandle Field in Texas.[75][144] Much of this gas was once sent by pipeline to the National Helium Reserve, but since 2005 this reserve is being depleted and sold off, and is expected to be largely depleted by 2021,[141] under the October 2013 Responsible Helium Administration and Stewardship Act (H.R. 527).[145]
Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium.[146] In 1996, the U.S. had proven helium reserves, in such gas well complexes, of about 147 billion standard cubic feet (4.2 billion SCM).[147] At rates of use at that time (72 million SCM per year in the U.S.; see pie chart below) this would have been enough helium for about 58 years of U.S. use, and less than this (perhaps 80% of the time) at world use rates, although factors in saving and processing impact effective reserve numbers.
Helium must be extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon, yet the demand for it is far higher. It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium, 0.1% of the world’s helium demands would be satisfied. Similarly, only 1% of the world’s helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants.[148] Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons, but these processes are a completely uneconomical method of production.[149]
Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small insulated containers called dewars which hold as much as 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 42 m3 (around 11,000 U.S. gallons). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high-pressure cylinders holding as much as 8 m3 (approx. 282 standard cubic feet), while large quantities of high-pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of as much as 4,860 m3 (approx. 172,000 standard cubic feet).
Conservation advocates
According to helium conservationists like Nobel laureate physicist Robert Coleman Richardson, writing in 2010, the free market price of helium has contributed to «wasteful» usage (e.g. for helium balloons). Prices in the 2000s had been lowered by the decision of the U.S. Congress to sell off the country’s large helium stockpile by 2015.[150] According to Richardson, the price needed to be multiplied by 20 to eliminate the excessive wasting of helium. In the paper Stop squandering helium published in 2012, it was also proposed to create an International Helium Agency that would build a sustainable market for «this precious commodity».[151]
Applications
The largest single use of liquid helium is to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners.
Estimated 2014 U.S. fractional helium use by category. Total use is 34 million cubic meters.[152]
Cryogenics (32%)
Pressurizing and purging (18%)
Welding (13%)
Controlled atmospheres (18%)
Leak detection (4%)
Breathing mixtures (2%)
Other (13%)
While balloons are perhaps the best known use of helium, they are a minor part of all helium use.[70] Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2014 world helium total production of about 32 million kg (180 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the largest use (about 32% of the total in 2014) is in cryogenic applications, most of which involves cooling the superconducting magnets in medical MRI scanners and NMR spectrometers.[153] Other major uses were pressurizing and purging systems, welding, maintenance of controlled atmospheres, and leak detection. Other uses by category were relatively minor fractions.[152]
Controlled atmospheres
Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography,[91] because it is inert. Because of its inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels[154] and impulse facilities.[155]
Gas tungsten arc welding
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen.[24] A number of inert shielding gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, but helium is used instead of cheaper argon especially for welding materials that have higher heat conductivity, like aluminium or copper.
Minor uses
Industrial leak detection
A dual chamber helium leak detection machine
One industrial application for helium is leak detection. Because helium diffuses through solids three times faster than air, it is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment (such as cryogenic tanks) and high-pressure containers.[156] The tested object is placed in a chamber, which is then evacuated and filled with helium. The helium that escapes through the leaks is detected by a sensitive device (helium mass spectrometer), even at the leak rates as small as 10−9 mbar·L/s (10−10 Pa·m3/s). The measurement procedure is normally automatic and is called helium integral test. A simpler procedure is to fill the tested object with helium and to manually search for leaks with a hand-held device.[157]
Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk material. While helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation rate) through glasses, ceramics, and synthetic materials, inert gases such as helium will not permeate most bulk metals.[158]
Flight
Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp.
Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is more buoyant, and escapes permeating through a membrane at a lower rate, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable, and indeed fire-retardant. Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000 m3 (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch.[91]
Minor commercial and recreational uses
Helium as a breathing gas has no narcotic properties, so helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis, which worsen with increasing depth.[159][160] As pressure increases with depth, the density of the breathing gas also increases, and the low molecular weight of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing by lowering the density of the mixture. This reduces the Reynolds number of flow, leading to a reduction of turbulent flow and an increase in laminar flow, which requires less work of breathing.[161][162] At depths below 150 metres (490 ft) divers breathing helium–oxygen mixtures begin to experience tremors and a decrease in psychomotor function, symptoms of high-pressure nervous syndrome.[163] This effect may be countered to some extent by adding an amount of narcotic gas such as hydrogen or nitrogen to a helium–oxygen mixture.[164]
Helium–neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam, had various practical applications which included barcode readers and laser pointers, before they were almost universally replaced by cheaper diode lasers.[24]
For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors.[156]
Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number.[165] The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming.[166]
Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.[167]
Scientific uses
The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of refraction.[26] This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy.[168][169]
Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography.
The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating.[24][26]
Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. As examples of applications, liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 metric tons of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 K (−271.25 °C; −456.25 °F).[170]
Medical uses
Helium was approved for medical use in the United States in April 2020 for humans and animals.[171][172]
As a contaminant
While chemically inert, helium contamination impairs the operation of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) such that iPhones may fail.[173]
Inhalation and safety
Effects
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood.
The effect of helium on a human voice
The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. Because the natural resonance frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled, a corresponding increase occurs in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract, which is the amplifier of vocal sound.[24][174] This increase in the resonant frequency of the amplifier (the vocal tract) gives an increased amplification to the high-frequency components of the sound wave produced by the direct vibration of the vocal folds, compared to the case when the voice box is filled with air. When a person speaks after inhaling helium gas, the muscles that control the voice box still move in the same way as when the voice box is filled with air, therefore the fundamental frequency (sometimes called pitch) produced by direct vibration of the vocal folds does not change.[175] However, the high-frequency-preferred amplification causes a change in timbre of the amplified sound, resulting in a reedy, duck-like vocal quality. The opposite effect, lowering resonant frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon.
Hazards
Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration.[24][176] Fatalities have been recorded, including a youth who suffocated in Vancouver in 2003 and two adults who suffocated in South Florida in 2006.[177][178] In 1998, an Australian girl from Victoria fell unconscious and temporarily turned blue after inhaling the entire contents of a party balloon.[179][180][181]
Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders or even balloon filling valves is extremely dangerous, as high flow rate and pressure can result in barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue.[176][182]
Death caused by helium is rare. The first media-recorded case was that of a 15-year-old girl from Texas who died in 1998 from helium inhalation at a friend’s party; the exact type of helium death is unidentified.[179][180][181]
In the United States only two fatalities were reported between 2000 and 2004, including a man who died in North Carolina of barotrauma in 2002.[177][182] A youth asphyxiated in Vancouver during 2003, and a 27-year-old man in Australia had an embolism after breathing from a cylinder in 2000.[177] Since then two adults asphyxiated in South Florida in 2006,[177][178][183] and there were cases in 2009 and 2010, one a Californian youth who was found with a bag over his head, attached to a helium tank,[184] and another teenager in Northern Ireland died of asphyxiation.[185] At Eagle Point, Oregon a teenage girl died in 2012 from barotrauma at a party.[186][187][188] A girl from Michigan died from hypoxia later in the year.[189]
On February 4, 2015, it was revealed that, during the recording of their main TV show on January 28, a 12-year-old member (name withheld) of Japanese all-girl singing group 3B Junior suffered from air embolism, losing consciousness and falling into a coma as a result of air bubbles blocking the flow of blood to the brain, after inhaling huge quantities of helium as part of a game. The incident was not made public until a week later.[190][191] The staff of TV Asahi held an emergency press conference to communicate that the member had been taken to the hospital and is showing signs of rehabilitation such as moving eyes and limbs, but her consciousness has not yet been sufficiently recovered. Police have launched an investigation due to a neglect of safety measures.[192][193]
The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen; its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns, and the liquid-to-gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are installed. Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature.[91]
At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead to high-pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.[194][163]
See also
- Abiogenic petroleum origin
- Helium-3 propulsion
- Leidenfrost effect
- Superfluid
- Tracer-gas leak testing method
- Hamilton Cady
Notes
- ^ A few authors dispute the placement of helium in the noble gas column, preferring to place it above beryllium with the alkaline earth metals. They do so on the grounds of helium’s 1s2 electron configuration, which is analogous to the ns2 valence configurations of the alkaline earth metals, and furthermore point to some specific trends that are more regular with helium over beryllium.[5][6][7][8][9] However, the classification of helium with the other noble gases remains near-universal, as its extraordinary inertness is extremely close to that of the other light noble gases neon and argon.[10]
References
- ^ «Standard Atomic Weights: Helium». CIAAW. 1983.
- ^ Shuen-Chen Hwang, Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan (2005). «Noble Gases». Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley. pp. 343–383. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01.
- ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
- ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
- ^ Grochala, Wojciech (1 November 2017). «On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic Table of Elements». Foundations of Chemistry. 20 (2018): 191–207. doi:10.1007/s10698-017-9302-7.
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- ^ Rayet, G. (1868) «Analyse spectral des protubérances observées, pendant l’éclipse totale de Soleil visible le 18 août 1868, à la presqu’île de Malacca» (Spectral analysis of the protuberances observed during the total solar eclipse, seen on 18 August 1868, from the Malacca peninsula), Comptes rendus … , 67 : 757–759. From p. 758: » … je vis immédiatement une série de neuf lignes brillantes qui … me semblent devoir être assimilées aux lignes principales du spectre solaire, B, D, E, b, une ligne inconnue, F, et deux lignes du groupe G.» ( … I saw immediately a series of nine bright lines that … seemed to me should be classed as the principal lines of the solar spectrum, B, D, E, b, an unknown line, F, and two lines of the group G.)
- ^ Captain C. T. Haig (1868) «Account of spectroscopic observations of the eclipse of the sun, August 18th, 1868» Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 74–80. From p. 74: «I may state at once that I observed the spectra of two red flames close to each other, and in their spectra two broad bright bands quite sharply defined, one rose-madder and the other light golden.»
- ^ Pogson filed his observations of the 1868 eclipse with the local Indian government, but his report wasn’t published. (Biman B. Nath, The Story of Helium and the Birth of Astrophysics (New York, New York: Springer, 2013), p. 8.) Nevertheless, Lockyer quoted from his report. From p. 320 Archived 17 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine of Lockyer, J. Norman (1896) «The story of helium. Prologue,» Nature, 53 : 319–322 : «Pogson, in referring to the eclipse of 1868, said that the yellow line was «at D, or near D.» «
- ^ Lieutenant John Herschel (1868) «Account of the solar eclipse of 1868, as seen at Jamkandi in the Bombay Presidency,» Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 104–120. From p. 113: As the moment of the total solar eclipse approached, » … I recorded an increasing brilliancy in the spectrum in the neighborhood of D, so great in fact as to prevent any measurement of that line till an opportune cloud moderated the light. I am not prepared to offer any explanation of this.» From p. 117: «I also consider that there can be no question that the ORANGE LINE was identical with D, so far as the capacity of the instrument to establish any such identity is concerned.»
- ^ In his initial report to the French Academy of Sciences about the 1868 eclipse, Janssen made no mention of a yellow line in the solar spectrum. See:
- Janssen (1868) «Indication de quelques-uns des résultats obtenus à Cocanada, pendant l’éclipse du mois d’août dernier, et à la suite de cette éclipse» (Information on some of the results obtained at Cocanada, during the eclipse of the month of last August, and following that eclipse), Comptes rendus … , 67 : 838–839.
- Wheeler M. Sears, Helium: The Disappearing Element (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2015), p. 44.
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However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that : «Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here.» (See: (Launay, 2012), p. 45.)
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Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium
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Raccolsi alcun tempo fa una sostanza amorfa di consistenza butirracea e di colore giallo sbiadato sublimata sull’orlo di una fumarola prossima alla bocca di eruzione. Saggiata questa sublimazione allo spettroscopio, ho ravvisato le righe del sodio e del potassio ed una lineare ben distinta che corrisponde esattamente alla D3 che è quella dell’Helium. Do per ora il semplice annunzio del fatto, proponendomi di ritornare sopra questo argomento, dopo di aver sottoposta la sublimazione ad una analisi chimica. (I collected some time ago an amorphous substance having a buttery consistency and a faded yellow color which had sublimated on the rim of a fumarole near the mouth of the eruption. Having analyzed this sublimated substance with a spectroscope, I recognized the lines of sodium and potassium and a very distinct linear line which corresponds exactly to D3, which is that of helium. For the present, I’m making a mere announcement of the fact, proposing to return to this subject after having subjected the sublimate to a chemical analysis.)
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External links
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 15 July 2009, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
General
- U.S. Government’s Bureau of Land Management: Sources, Refinement, and Shortage. With some history of helium.
- U.S. Geological Survey publications on helium beginning 1996: Helium
- Where is all the helium? Aga website
- It’s Elemental – Helium
- Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Chemistry World: Helium
- International Chemical Safety Cards – Helium; includes health and safety information regarding accidental exposures to helium
More detail
- Helium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
- Helium at the Helsinki University of Technology; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4
- Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics – includes a summary of some low temperature techniques
- Video: Demonstration of superfluid helium (Alfred Leitner, 1963, 38 min.)
Miscellaneous
- Physics in Speech with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch
- Article about helium and other noble gases
Helium shortage
- America’s Helium Supply: Options for Producing More Helium from Federal Land: Oversight Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources of the Committee on Natural Resources, U.S. House Of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, Thursday, July 11, 2013
- Helium Program: Urgent Issues Facing BLM’s Storage and Sale of Helium Reserves: Testimony before the Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives Government Accountability Office
- Kramer, David (May 22, 2012). «Senate bill would preserve US helium reserve: Measure would give scientists first dibs on helium should a shortage develop. Physics Today web site». Archived from the original on October 27, 2012.
- Richardson, Robert C.; Chan, Moses (2009). «Helium, when will it run out?» (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-14.
Helium | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Pronunciation | (HEE-lee-əm) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Appearance | colorless gas, exhibiting a gray, cloudy glow (or reddish-orange if an especially high voltage is used) when placed in an electric field | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight Ar°(He) |
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Helium in the periodic table | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Atomic number (Z) | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Group | group 18 (noble gases) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Period | period 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Block | s-block | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electron configuration | 1s2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electrons per shell | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Physical properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Phase at STP | gas | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Melting point | 0.95 K (−272.20 °C, −457.96 °F) (at 2.5 MPa) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Boiling point | 4.222 K (−268.928 °C, −452.070 °F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Density (at STP) | 0.1786 g/L | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
when liquid (at m.p.) | 0.145 g/cm3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
when liquid (at b.p.) | 0.125 g/cm3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Triple point | 2.177 K, 5.043 kPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Critical point | 5.1953 K, 0.22746 MPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of fusion | 0.0138 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of vaporization | 0.0829 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar heat capacity | 20.78 J/(mol·K)[2] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure (defined by ITS-90)
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Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Oxidation states | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electronegativity | Pauling scale: no data | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ionization energies |
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Covalent radius | 28 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Van der Waals radius | 140 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Spectral lines of helium |
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Other properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Natural occurrence | primordial | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Crystal structure | hexagonal close-packed (hcp) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Speed of sound | 972 m/s | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thermal conductivity | 0.1513 W/(m⋅K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Magnetic ordering | diamagnetic[3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar magnetic susceptibility | −1.88×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CAS Number | 7440-59-7 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Naming | after Helios, Greek god of the Sun | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Discovery | Pierre Janssen, Norman Lockyer (1868) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
First isolation | William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve, Abraham Langlet (1895) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Main isotopes of helium
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Category: Helium
| references |
Helium (from Greek: ἥλιος, romanized: helios, lit. ‘sun’) is a chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and the first in the noble gas group in the periodic table.[a] Its boiling and melting point are the lowest among all the elements. It is the second lightest and second most abundant element in the observable universe, after hydrogen. It is present at about 24% of the total elemental mass, which is more than 12 times the mass of all the heavier elements combined. Its abundance is similar to this in both the Sun and in Jupiter, due to the very high nuclear binding energy (per nucleon) of helium-4, with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of both nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. The most common isotope of helium in the universe is helium-4, the vast majority of which was formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are created by nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.
Helium was first detected as an unknown, yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet,[11] Captain C. T. Haig,[12] Norman R. Pogson,[13] and Lieutenant John Herschel,[14] and was subsequently confirmed by French astronomer Jules Janssen.[15] Janssen is often jointly credited with detecting the element, along with Norman Lockyer. Janssen recorded the helium spectral line during the solar eclipse of 1868, while Lockyer observed it from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, which he named. The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by chemists Sir William Ramsay, Per Teodor Cleve, and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore, cleveite, which is now not regarded as a separate mineral species, but as a variety of uraninite.[16][17] In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States, by far the largest supplier of the gas today.
Liquid helium is used in cryogenics (its largest single use, absorbing about a quarter of production), and in the cooling of superconducting magnets, with its main commercial application in MRI scanners. Helium’s other industrial uses—as a pressurizing and purge gas, as a protective atmosphere for arc welding, and in processes such as growing crystals to make silicon wafers—account for half of the gas produced. A well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.[18] As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre and quality of the human voice. In scientific research, the behavior of the two fluid phases of helium-4 (helium I and helium II) is important to researchers studying quantum mechanics (in particular the property of superfluidity) and to those looking at the phenomena, such as superconductivity, produced in matter near absolute zero.
On Earth, it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements (thorium and uranium, although there are other examples), as the alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei. This radiogenic helium is trapped with natural gas in concentrations as great as 7% by volume, from which it is extracted commercially by a low-temperature separation process called fractional distillation. Terrestrial helium is a non-renewable resource because once released into the atmosphere, it promptly escapes into space. Its supply is thought to be rapidly diminishing.[19][20] However, some studies suggest that helium produced deep in the earth by radioactive decay can collect in natural gas reserves in larger than expected quantities,[21] in some cases, having been released by volcanic activity.[22]
History
Scientific discoveries
The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.[23][24] This line was initially assumed to be sodium. On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum, which, he named the D3 because it was near the known D1 and D2 Fraunhofer line lines of sodium.[25][26] He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).[27][28]
In 1881, Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri detected helium on Earth for the first time through its D3 spectral line, when he analyzed a material that had been sublimated during a recent eruption of Mount Vesuvius.[29]
The cleveite sample from which Ramsay first purified helium[30]
On March 26, 1895, Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10% rare-earth elements) with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon but, after separating nitrogen and oxygen from the gas, liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright yellow line that matched the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun.[26][31][32][33] These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes.[34][35] It was independently isolated from cleveite, in the same year, by chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Abraham Langlet, in Uppsala, Sweden, who collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight.[36][37][24][38] Helium was also isolated by the American geochemist, William Francis Hillebrand, prior to Ramsay’s discovery, when he noticed unusual spectral lines while testing a sample of the mineral uraninite. Hillebrand, however, attributed the lines to nitrogen.[39] His letter of congratulations to Ramsay offers an interesting case of discovery, and near-discovery, in science.[40]
In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that alpha particles are helium nuclei, by allowing the particles to penetrate the thin, glass wall of an evacuated tube, then creating a discharge in the tube, to study the spectrum of the new gas inside.[41] In 1908, helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes by cooling the gas to less than 5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F).[42][43] He tried to solidify it, by further reducing the temperature, but failed, because helium does not solidify at atmospheric pressure. Onnes’ student Willem Hendrik Keesom was eventually able to solidify 1 cm3 of helium in 1926 by applying additional external pressure.[44][45]
In 1913, Niels Bohr published his «trilogy»[46][47] on atomic structure that included a reconsideration of the Pickering–Fowler series as central evidence in support of his model of the atom.[48][49] This series is named for Edward Charles Pickering, who in 1896 published observations of previously unknown lines in the spectrum of the star ζ Puppis[50] (these are now known to occur with Wolf–Rayet and other hot stars).[51] Pickering attributed the observation (lines at 4551, 5411, and 10123 Å) to a new form of hydrogen with half-integer transition levels.[52][53] In 1912, Alfred Fowler[54] managed to produce similar lines from a hydrogen-helium mixture, and supported Pickering’s conclusion as to their origin.[55] Bohr’s model does not allow for half-integer transitions (nor does quantum mechanics) and Bohr concluded that Pickering and Fowler were wrong, and instead assigned these spectral lines to ionised helium, He+.[56] Fowler was initially skeptical[57] but was ultimately convinced[58] that Bohr was correct,[46] and by 1915 «spectroscopists had transferred [the Pickering–Fowler series] definitively [from hydrogen] to helium.»[49][59] Bohr’s theoretical work on the Pickering series had demonstrated the need for «a re-examination of problems that seemed already to have been solved within classical theories» and provided important confirmation for his atomic theory.[49]
In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity.[60] This phenomenon is related to Bose–Einstein condensation. In 1972, the same phenomenon was observed in helium-3, but at temperatures much closer to absolute zero, by American physicists Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson. The phenomenon in helium-3 is thought to be related to pairing of helium-3 fermions to make bosons, in analogy to Cooper pairs of electrons producing superconductivity.[61]
Extraction and use
After an oil drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas produced a gas geyser that would not burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence where, with the help of chemists Hamilton Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas consisted of, by volume, 72% nitrogen, 15% methane (a combustible percentage only with sufficient oxygen), 1% hydrogen, and 12% an unidentifiable gas.[24][62] With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium.[63][64] This showed that despite its overall rarity on Earth, helium was concentrated in large quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction as a byproduct of natural gas.[65]
This enabled the United States to become the world’s leading supplier of helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the United States Navy sponsored three small experimental helium plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage balloons with the non-flammable, lighter-than-air gas. A total of 5,700 m3 (200,000 cu ft) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though less than a cubic meter of the gas had previously been obtained.[26] Some of this gas was used in the world’s first helium-filled airship, the U.S. Navy’s C-class blimp C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia, to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C., on December 1, 1921,[66] nearly two years before the Navy’s first rigid helium-filled airship, the Naval Aircraft Factory-built USS Shenandoah, flew in September 1923.
Although the extraction process using low-temperature gas liquefaction was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft. During World War II, the demand increased for helium for lifting gas and for shielded arc welding. The helium mass spectrometer was also vital in the atomic bomb Manhattan Project.[67]
The government of the United States set up the National Helium Reserve in 1925 at Amarillo, Texas, with the goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime.[26] Because of the Helium Act of 1925, which banned the export of scarce helium on which the US then had a production monopoly, together with the prohibitive cost of the gas, the Hindenburg, like all German Zeppelins, was forced to use hydrogen as the lift gas. The helium market after World War II was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure a supply of liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.[68]
After the «Helium Acts Amendments of 1960» (Public Law 86–777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this helium conservation program, the Bureau built a 425-mile (684 km) pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants with the government’s partially depleted Cliffside gas field near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, at which time it was further purified.[69]
By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$1.4 billion in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve.[24][70] The resulting Helium Privatization Act of 1996[71] (Public Law 104–273) directed the United States Department of the Interior to empty the reserve, with sales starting by 2005.[72]
Helium produced between 1930 and 1945 was about 98.3% pure (2% nitrogen), which was adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.95% helium were available.[73]
For many years, the United States produced more than 90% of commercially usable helium in the world, while extraction plants in Canada, Poland, Russia, and other nations produced the remainder. In the mid-1990s, a new plant in Arzew, Algeria, producing 17 million cubic meters (600 million cubic feet) began operation, with enough production to cover all of Europe’s demand. Meanwhile, by 2000, the consumption of helium within the U.S. had risen to more than 15 million kg per year.[74] In 2004–2006, additional plants in Ras Laffan, Qatar, and Skikda, Algeria were built. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium.[75] Through this time, both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased.[76] From 2002 to 2007 helium prices doubled.[77]
As of 2012, the United States National Helium Reserve accounted for 30 percent of the world’s helium.[78] The reserve was expected to run out of helium in 2018.[78] Despite that, a proposed bill in the United States Senate would allow the reserve to continue to sell the gas. Other large reserves were in the Hugoton in Kansas, United States, and nearby gas fields of Kansas and the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma. New helium plants were scheduled to open in 2012 in Qatar, Russia, and the US state of Wyoming, but they were not expected to ease the shortage.[78]
In 2013, Qatar started up the world’s largest helium unit,[79] although the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis severely affected helium production there.[80] 2014 was widely acknowledged to be a year of over-supply in the helium business, following years of renowned shortages.[81] Nasdaq reported (2015) that for Air Products, an international corporation that sells gases for industrial use, helium volumes remain under economic pressure due to feedstock supply constraints.[82]
Characteristics
Atom
The helium atom. Depicted are the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case.
In quantum mechanics
In the perspective of quantum mechanics, helium is the second simplest atom to model, following the hydrogen atom. Helium is composed of two electrons in atomic orbitals surrounding a nucleus containing two protons and (usually) two neutrons. As in Newtonian mechanics, no system that consists of more than two particles can be solved with an exact analytical mathematical approach (see 3-body problem) and helium is no exception. Thus, numerical mathematical methods are required, even to solve the system of one nucleus and two electrons. Such computational chemistry methods have been used to create a quantum mechanical picture of helium electron binding which is accurate to within < 2% of the correct value, in a few computational steps.[83] Such models show that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Zeff which each electron sees is about 1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic «bare» helium nucleus.
Related stability of the helium-4 nucleus and electron shell
The nucleus of the helium-4 atom is identical with an alpha particle. High-energy electron-scattering experiments show its charge to decrease exponentially from a maximum at a central point, exactly as does the charge density of helium’s own electron cloud. This symmetry reflects similar underlying physics: the pair of neutrons and the pair of protons in helium’s nucleus obey the same quantum mechanical rules as do helium’s pair of electrons (although the nuclear particles are subject to a different nuclear binding potential), so that all these fermions fully occupy 1s orbitals in pairs, none of them possessing orbital angular momentum, and each cancelling the other’s intrinsic spin. Adding another of any of these particles would require angular momentum and would release substantially less energy (in fact, no nucleus with five nucleons is stable). This arrangement is thus energetically extremely stable for all these particles, and this stability accounts for many crucial facts regarding helium in nature.
For example, the stability and low energy of the electron cloud state in helium accounts for the element’s chemical inertness, and also the lack of interaction of helium atoms with each other, producing the lowest melting and boiling points of all the elements.
In a similar way, the particular energetic stability of the helium-4 nucleus, produced by similar effects, accounts for the ease of helium-4 production in atomic reactions that involve either heavy-particle emission or fusion. Some stable helium-3 (two protons and one neutron) is produced in fusion reactions from hydrogen, but it is a very small fraction compared to the highly favorable helium-4.
Binding energy per nucleon of common isotopes. The binding energy per particle of helium-4 is significantly larger than all nearby nuclides.
The unusual stability of the helium-4 nucleus is also important cosmologically: it explains the fact that in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, as the «soup» of free protons and neutrons which had initially been created in about 6:1 ratio cooled to the point that nuclear binding was possible, almost all first compound atomic nuclei to form were helium-4 nuclei. Owing to the relatively tight binding of helium-4 nuclei, its production consumed nearly all of the free neutrons in a few minutes, before they could beta-decay, and thus few neutrons were available to form heavier atoms such as lithium, beryllium, or boron. Helium-4 nuclear binding per nucleon is stronger than in any of these elements (see nucleogenesis and binding energy) and thus, once helium had been formed, no energetic drive was available to make elements 3, 4 and 5.[84] It is barely energetically favorable for helium to fuse into the next element with a lower energy per nucleon, carbon. However, due to lack of intermediate elements, this process requires three helium nuclei striking each other nearly simultaneously (see triple alpha process). There was thus no time for significant carbon to be formed in the few minutes after the Big Bang, before the early expanding universe cooled to the temperature and pressure point where helium fusion to carbon was no longer possible. This left the early universe with a very similar ratio of hydrogen/helium as is observed today (3 parts hydrogen to 1 part helium-4 by mass), with nearly all the neutrons in the universe trapped in helium-4.
All heavier elements (including those necessary for rocky planets like the Earth, and for carbon-based or other life) have thus been created since the Big Bang in stars which were hot enough to fuse helium itself. All elements other than hydrogen and helium today account for only 2% of the mass of atomic matter in the universe. Helium-4, by contrast, makes up about 23% of the universe’s ordinary matter—nearly all the ordinary matter that is not hydrogen.
Gas and plasma phases
Helium discharge tube shaped like the element’s atomic symbol
Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon, and thus the second least reactive of all elements.[85] It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Because of helium’s relatively low molar (atomic) mass, its thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed in the gas phase are all greater than any other gas except hydrogen. For these reasons and the small size of helium monatomic molecules, helium diffuses through solids at a rate three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen.[26]
Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas,[86] and one of the least water-soluble of any gas (CF4, SF6, and C4F8 have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x2/10−5, respectively, versus helium’s 0.70797 x2/10−5),[87] and helium’s index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gas.[88] Helium has a negative Joule–Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule–Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.[26] Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.
Most extraterrestrial helium is found in a plasma state, with properties quite different from those of atomic helium. In a plasma, helium’s electrons are not bound to its nucleus, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, the particles interact with the Earth’s magnetosphere, giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.[89]
Liquid phase
Liquefied helium. This helium is not only liquid, but has been cooled to the point of superfluidity. The drop of liquid at the bottom of the glass represents helium spontaneously escaping from the container over the side, to empty out of the container. The energy to drive this process is supplied by the potential energy of the falling helium.
Unlike any other element, helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures. This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics: specifically, the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1–1.5 K (about −272 °C or −457 °F) at about 25 bar (2.5 MPa) of pressure.[90] It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure, but it is highly compressible; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.[91] With a bulk modulus of about 27 MPa[92] it is ~100 times more compressible than water. Solid helium has a density of 0.214±0.006 g/cm3 at 1.15 K and 66 atm; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar (2.5 MPa) is 0.187±0.009 g/cm3.[93] At higher temperatures, helium will solidify with sufficient pressure. At room temperature, this requires about 114,000 atm.[94]
Helium I
Below its boiling point of 4.22 K (−268.93 °C; −452.07 °F) and above the lambda point of 2.1768 K (−270.9732 °C; −455.7518 °F), the isotope helium-4 exists in a normal colorless liquid state, called helium I.[26] Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when it is heated and contracts when its temperature is lowered. Below the lambda point, however, helium does not boil, and it expands as the temperature is lowered further.
Helium I has a gas-like index of refraction of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of Styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is.[26] This colorless liquid has a very low viscosity and a density of 0.145–0.125 g/mL (between about 0 and 4 K),[95] which is only one-fourth the value expected from classical physics.[26] Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property and thus both states of liquid helium (helium I and helium II) are called quantum fluids, meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This may be an effect of its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, preventing random molecular motion (thermal energy) from masking the atomic properties.[26]
Helium II
Liquid helium below its lambda point (called helium II) exhibits very unusual characteristics. Due to its high thermal conductivity, when it boils, it does not bubble but rather evaporates directly from its surface. Helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about the properties of the isotope.[26]
Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.[26]
Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum mechanical state (see: macroscopic quantum phenomena) of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through capillaries as thin as 10−7 to 10−8 m it has no measurable viscosity.[24] However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed. Current theory explains this using the two-fluid model for helium II. In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a ground state, which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid.[96]
In the fountain effect, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium. In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container.[97]
The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper.[26] This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a valence band of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat. Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The flow of heat is governed by equations that are similar to the wave equation used to characterize sound propagation in air. When heat is introduced, it moves at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon known as second sound.[26]
Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin.[26][98][99] As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II’s ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force.[100] These waves are known as third sound.[101]
Isotopes
There are nine known isotopes of helium, but only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. In the Earth’s atmosphere, one atom is 3
He for every million that are 4
He.[24] Unlike most elements, helium’s isotopic abundance varies greatly by origin, due to the different formation processes. The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its nucleons are arranged into complete shells. It was also formed in enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis.[102]
Helium-3 is present on Earth only in trace amounts. Most of it has been present since Earth’s formation, though some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust.[103] Trace amounts are also produced by the beta decay of tritium.[104] Rocks from the Earth’s crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten, and these ratios can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth’s mantle.[103] 3
He is much more abundant in stars as a product of nuclear fusion. Thus in the interstellar medium, the proportion of 3
He to 4
He is about 100 times higher than on Earth.[105] Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith, have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds. The Moon’s surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 10 ppb, much higher than the approximately 5 ppt found in the Earth’s atmosphere.[106][107] A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,[108] have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith, and use the helium-3 for fusion.
Liquid helium-4 can be cooled to about 1 K (−272.15 °C; −457.87 °F) using evaporative cooling in a 1-K pot. Similar cooling of helium-3, which has a lower boiling point, can achieve about 0.2 kelvin in a helium-3 refrigerator. Equal mixtures of liquid 3
He and 4
He below 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different quantum statistics: helium-4 atoms are bosons while helium-3 atoms are fermions).[26] Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins.[109]
It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes, which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived heavy helium isotope is the unbound helium-10 with a half-life of 2.6(4)×10−22 s.[110] Helium-6 decays by emitting a beta particle and has a half-life of 0.8 second. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are created in certain nuclear reactions.[26] Helium-6 and helium-8 are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.[26]
Properties
Table of thermal and physical properties of helium gas at atmospheric pressure:[111][112]
Temperature (K) | Density (kg/m^3) | Specific heat (kJ/kg °C) | Dynamic viscosity (kg/m s) | Kinematic viscosity (m^2/s) | Thermal conductivity (W/m °C) | Thermal diffusivity (m^2/s) | Prandtl Number |
100 | 5.193 | 9.63E-06 | 1.98E-05 | 0.073 | 2.89E-05 | 0.686 | |
120 | 0.406 | 5.193 | 1.07E-05 | 2.64E-05 | 0.0819 | 3.88E-05 | 0.679 |
144 | 0.3379 | 5.193 | 1.26E-05 | 3.71E-05 | 0.0928 | 5.28E-05 | 0.7 |
200 | 0.2435 | 5.193 | 1.57E-05 | 6.44E-05 | 0.1177 | 9.29E-05 | 0.69 |
255 | 0.1906 | 5.193 | 1.82E-05 | 9.55E-05 | 0.1357 | 1.37E-04 | 0.7 |
366 | 0.1328 | 5.193 | 2.31E-05 | 1.74E-04 | 0.1691 | 2.45E-04 | 0.71 |
477 | 0.10204 | 5.193 | 2.75E-05 | 2.69E-04 | 0.197 | 3.72E-04 | 0.72 |
589 | 0.08282 | 5.193 | 3.11E-05 | 3.76E-04 | 0.225 | 5.22E-04 | 0.72 |
700 | 0.07032 | 5.193 | 3.48E-05 | 4.94E-04 | 0.251 | 6.66E-04 | 0.72 |
800 | 0.06023 | 5.193 | 3.82E-05 | 6.34E-04 | 0.275 | 8.77E-04 | 0.72 |
900 | 0.05451 | 5.193 | 4.14E-05 | 7.59E-04 | 0.33 | 1.14E-03 | 0.687 |
1000 | 5.193 | 4.46E-05 | 9.14E-04 | 0.354 | 1.40E-03 | 0.654 |
Compounds
Structure of the suspected fluoroheliate anion, OHeF−
Helium has a valence of zero and is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions.[91] It is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge with a voltage below its ionization potential.[26] Helium can form unstable compounds, known as excimers, with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur, and phosphorus when it is subjected to a glow discharge, to electron bombardment, or reduced to plasma by other means. The molecular compounds HeNe, HgHe10, and WHe2, and the molecular ions He+
2, He2+
2, HeH+
, and HeD+
have been created this way.[113] HeH+ is also stable in its ground state, but is extremely reactive—it is the strongest Brønsted acid known, and therefore can exist only in isolation, as it will protonate any molecule or counteranion it contacts. This technique has also produced the neutral molecule He2, which has a large number of band systems, and HgHe, which is apparently held together only by polarization forces.[26]
Van der Waals compounds of helium can also be formed with cryogenic helium gas and atoms of some other substance, such as LiHe and He2.[114]
Theoretically, other true compounds may be possible, such as helium fluorohydride (HHeF) which would be analogous to HArF, discovered in 2000.[115] Calculations show that two new compounds containing a helium-oxygen bond could be stable.[116] Two new molecular species, predicted using theory, CsFHeO and N(CH3)4FHeO, are derivatives of a metastable FHeO− anion first theorized in 2005 by a group from Taiwan. If confirmed by experiment, the only remaining element with no known stable compounds would be neon.[117]
Helium atoms have been inserted into the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable at high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside.[118] If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.[119] Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.
Under high pressures helium can form compounds with various other elements. Helium-nitrogen clathrate (He(N2)11) crystals have been grown at room temperature at pressures ca. 10 GPa in a diamond anvil cell.[120] The insulating electride Na2He has been shown to be thermodynamically stable at pressures above 113 GPa. It has a fluorite structure.[121]
Occurrence and production
Natural abundance
Although it is rare on Earth, helium is the second most abundant element in the known Universe, constituting 23% of its baryonic mass. Only hydrogen is more abundant.[24] The vast majority of helium was formed by Big Bang nucleosynthesis one to three minutes after the Big Bang. As such, measurements of its abundance contribute to cosmological models. In stars, it is formed by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen in proton–proton chain reactions and the CNO cycle, part of stellar nucleosynthesis.[102]
In the Earth’s atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million.[122][123] The concentration is low and fairly constant despite the continuous production of new helium because most helium in the Earth’s atmosphere escapes into space by several processes.[124][125][126] In the Earth’s heterosphere, a part of the upper atmosphere, helium and other lighter gases are the most abundant elements.
Most helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of uranium and thorium, including uraninite and its varieties cleveite and pitchblende,[16][127] carnotite and monazite (a group name; «monazite» usually refers to monazite-(Ce)),[128][129] because they emit alpha particles (helium nuclei, He2+) to which electrons immediately combine as soon as the particle is stopped by the rock. In this way an estimated 3000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere.[130][131][132] In the Earth’s crust, the concentration of helium is 8 parts per billion. In seawater, the concentration is only 4 parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric iron. Because helium is trapped in the subsurface under conditions that also trap natural gas, the greatest natural concentrations of helium on the planet are found in natural gas, from which most commercial helium is extracted. The concentration varies in a broad range from a few ppm to more than 7% in a small gas field in San Juan County, New Mexico.[133][134]
As of 2021 the world’s helium reserves were estimated at 31 billion cubic meters, with a third of that being in Qatar.[135] In 2015 and 2016 additional probable reserves were announced to be under the Rocky Mountains in North America[136] and in the East African Rift.[137]
Modern extraction and distribution
For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which can contain as much as 7% helium.[138] Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly nitrogen and methane). The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to lowering temperatures, in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the gaseous mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade-A helium.[26] The principal impurity in Grade-A helium is neon. In a final production step, most of the helium that is produced is liquefied via a cryogenic process. This is necessary for applications requiring liquid helium and also allows helium suppliers to reduce the cost of long-distance transportation, as the largest liquid helium containers have more than five times the capacity of the largest gaseous helium tube trailers.[75][139]
In 2008, approximately 169 million standard cubic meters (SCM) of helium were extracted from natural gas or withdrawn from helium reserves with approximately 78% from the United States, 10% from Algeria, and most of the remainder from Russia, Poland and Qatar.[140] By 2013, increases in helium production in Qatar (under the company Qatargas managed by Air Liquide) had increased Qatar’s fraction of world helium production to 25%, and made it the second largest exporter after the United States.[141]
An estimated 54 billion cubic feet (1.5×109 m3) deposit of helium was found in Tanzania in 2016.[142] A large-scale helium plant was opened in Ningxia, China in 2020.[143]
In the United States, most helium is extracted from natural gas of the Hugoton and nearby gas fields in Kansas, Oklahoma, and the Panhandle Field in Texas.[75][144] Much of this gas was once sent by pipeline to the National Helium Reserve, but since 2005 this reserve is being depleted and sold off, and is expected to be largely depleted by 2021,[141] under the October 2013 Responsible Helium Administration and Stewardship Act (H.R. 527).[145]
Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium.[146] In 1996, the U.S. had proven helium reserves, in such gas well complexes, of about 147 billion standard cubic feet (4.2 billion SCM).[147] At rates of use at that time (72 million SCM per year in the U.S.; see pie chart below) this would have been enough helium for about 58 years of U.S. use, and less than this (perhaps 80% of the time) at world use rates, although factors in saving and processing impact effective reserve numbers.
Helium must be extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon, yet the demand for it is far higher. It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium, 0.1% of the world’s helium demands would be satisfied. Similarly, only 1% of the world’s helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants.[148] Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons, but these processes are a completely uneconomical method of production.[149]
Helium is commercially available in either liquid or gaseous form. As a liquid, it can be supplied in small insulated containers called dewars which hold as much as 1,000 liters of helium, or in large ISO containers which have nominal capacities as large as 42 m3 (around 11,000 U.S. gallons). In gaseous form, small quantities of helium are supplied in high-pressure cylinders holding as much as 8 m3 (approx. 282 standard cubic feet), while large quantities of high-pressure gas are supplied in tube trailers which have capacities of as much as 4,860 m3 (approx. 172,000 standard cubic feet).
Conservation advocates
According to helium conservationists like Nobel laureate physicist Robert Coleman Richardson, writing in 2010, the free market price of helium has contributed to «wasteful» usage (e.g. for helium balloons). Prices in the 2000s had been lowered by the decision of the U.S. Congress to sell off the country’s large helium stockpile by 2015.[150] According to Richardson, the price needed to be multiplied by 20 to eliminate the excessive wasting of helium. In the paper Stop squandering helium published in 2012, it was also proposed to create an International Helium Agency that would build a sustainable market for «this precious commodity».[151]
Applications
The largest single use of liquid helium is to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners.
Estimated 2014 U.S. fractional helium use by category. Total use is 34 million cubic meters.[152]
Cryogenics (32%)
Pressurizing and purging (18%)
Welding (13%)
Controlled atmospheres (18%)
Leak detection (4%)
Breathing mixtures (2%)
Other (13%)
While balloons are perhaps the best known use of helium, they are a minor part of all helium use.[70] Helium is used for many purposes that require some of its unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity, or inertness. Of the 2014 world helium total production of about 32 million kg (180 million standard cubic meters) helium per year, the largest use (about 32% of the total in 2014) is in cryogenic applications, most of which involves cooling the superconducting magnets in medical MRI scanners and NMR spectrometers.[153] Other major uses were pressurizing and purging systems, welding, maintenance of controlled atmospheres, and leak detection. Other uses by category were relatively minor fractions.[152]
Controlled atmospheres
Helium is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, and in gas chromatography,[91] because it is inert. Because of its inertness, thermally and calorically perfect nature, high speed of sound, and high value of the heat capacity ratio, it is also useful in supersonic wind tunnels[154] and impulse facilities.[155]
Gas tungsten arc welding
Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding processes on materials that at welding temperatures are contaminated and weakened by air or nitrogen.[24] A number of inert shielding gases are used in gas tungsten arc welding, but helium is used instead of cheaper argon especially for welding materials that have higher heat conductivity, like aluminium or copper.
Minor uses
Industrial leak detection
A dual chamber helium leak detection machine
One industrial application for helium is leak detection. Because helium diffuses through solids three times faster than air, it is used as a tracer gas to detect leaks in high-vacuum equipment (such as cryogenic tanks) and high-pressure containers.[156] The tested object is placed in a chamber, which is then evacuated and filled with helium. The helium that escapes through the leaks is detected by a sensitive device (helium mass spectrometer), even at the leak rates as small as 10−9 mbar·L/s (10−10 Pa·m3/s). The measurement procedure is normally automatic and is called helium integral test. A simpler procedure is to fill the tested object with helium and to manually search for leaks with a hand-held device.[157]
Helium leaks through cracks should not be confused with gas permeation through a bulk material. While helium has documented permeation constants (thus a calculable permeation rate) through glasses, ceramics, and synthetic materials, inert gases such as helium will not permeate most bulk metals.[158]
Flight
Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp.
Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is more buoyant, and escapes permeating through a membrane at a lower rate, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable, and indeed fire-retardant. Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000 m3 (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch.[91]
Minor commercial and recreational uses
Helium as a breathing gas has no narcotic properties, so helium mixtures such as trimix, heliox and heliair are used for deep diving to reduce the effects of narcosis, which worsen with increasing depth.[159][160] As pressure increases with depth, the density of the breathing gas also increases, and the low molecular weight of helium is found to considerably reduce the effort of breathing by lowering the density of the mixture. This reduces the Reynolds number of flow, leading to a reduction of turbulent flow and an increase in laminar flow, which requires less work of breathing.[161][162] At depths below 150 metres (490 ft) divers breathing helium–oxygen mixtures begin to experience tremors and a decrease in psychomotor function, symptoms of high-pressure nervous syndrome.[163] This effect may be countered to some extent by adding an amount of narcotic gas such as hydrogen or nitrogen to a helium–oxygen mixture.[164]
Helium–neon lasers, a type of low-powered gas laser producing a red beam, had various practical applications which included barcode readers and laser pointers, before they were almost universally replaced by cheaper diode lasers.[24]
For its inertness and high thermal conductivity, neutron transparency, and because it does not form radioactive isotopes under reactor conditions, helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some gas-cooled nuclear reactors.[156]
Helium, mixed with a heavier gas such as xenon, is useful for thermoacoustic refrigeration due to the resulting high heat capacity ratio and low Prandtl number.[165] The inertness of helium has environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration systems which contribute to ozone depletion or global warming.[166]
Helium is also used in some hard disk drives.[167]
Scientific uses
The use of helium reduces the distorting effects of temperature variations in the space between lenses in some telescopes, due to its extremely low index of refraction.[26] This method is especially used in solar telescopes where a vacuum tight telescope tube would be too heavy.[168][169]
Helium is a commonly used carrier gas for gas chromatography.
The age of rocks and minerals that contain uranium and thorium can be estimated by measuring the level of helium with a process known as helium dating.[24][26]
Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. As examples of applications, liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN uses 96 metric tons of liquid helium to maintain the temperature at 1.9 K (−271.25 °C; −456.25 °F).[170]
Medical uses
Helium was approved for medical use in the United States in April 2020 for humans and animals.[171][172]
As a contaminant
While chemically inert, helium contamination impairs the operation of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) such that iPhones may fail.[173]
Inhalation and safety
Effects
Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood.
The effect of helium on a human voice
The speed of sound in helium is nearly three times the speed of sound in air. Because the natural resonance frequency of a gas-filled cavity is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas, when helium is inhaled, a corresponding increase occurs in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract, which is the amplifier of vocal sound.[24][174] This increase in the resonant frequency of the amplifier (the vocal tract) gives an increased amplification to the high-frequency components of the sound wave produced by the direct vibration of the vocal folds, compared to the case when the voice box is filled with air. When a person speaks after inhaling helium gas, the muscles that control the voice box still move in the same way as when the voice box is filled with air, therefore the fundamental frequency (sometimes called pitch) produced by direct vibration of the vocal folds does not change.[175] However, the high-frequency-preferred amplification causes a change in timbre of the amplified sound, resulting in a reedy, duck-like vocal quality. The opposite effect, lowering resonant frequencies, can be obtained by inhaling a dense gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or xenon.
Hazards
Inhaling helium can be dangerous if done to excess, since helium is a simple asphyxiant and so displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration.[24][176] Fatalities have been recorded, including a youth who suffocated in Vancouver in 2003 and two adults who suffocated in South Florida in 2006.[177][178] In 1998, an Australian girl from Victoria fell unconscious and temporarily turned blue after inhaling the entire contents of a party balloon.[179][180][181]
Inhaling helium directly from pressurized cylinders or even balloon filling valves is extremely dangerous, as high flow rate and pressure can result in barotrauma, fatally rupturing lung tissue.[176][182]
Death caused by helium is rare. The first media-recorded case was that of a 15-year-old girl from Texas who died in 1998 from helium inhalation at a friend’s party; the exact type of helium death is unidentified.[179][180][181]
In the United States only two fatalities were reported between 2000 and 2004, including a man who died in North Carolina of barotrauma in 2002.[177][182] A youth asphyxiated in Vancouver during 2003, and a 27-year-old man in Australia had an embolism after breathing from a cylinder in 2000.[177] Since then two adults asphyxiated in South Florida in 2006,[177][178][183] and there were cases in 2009 and 2010, one a Californian youth who was found with a bag over his head, attached to a helium tank,[184] and another teenager in Northern Ireland died of asphyxiation.[185] At Eagle Point, Oregon a teenage girl died in 2012 from barotrauma at a party.[186][187][188] A girl from Michigan died from hypoxia later in the year.[189]
On February 4, 2015, it was revealed that, during the recording of their main TV show on January 28, a 12-year-old member (name withheld) of Japanese all-girl singing group 3B Junior suffered from air embolism, losing consciousness and falling into a coma as a result of air bubbles blocking the flow of blood to the brain, after inhaling huge quantities of helium as part of a game. The incident was not made public until a week later.[190][191] The staff of TV Asahi held an emergency press conference to communicate that the member had been taken to the hospital and is showing signs of rehabilitation such as moving eyes and limbs, but her consciousness has not yet been sufficiently recovered. Police have launched an investigation due to a neglect of safety measures.[192][193]
The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen; its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns, and the liquid-to-gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure-relief devices are installed. Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature.[91]
At high pressures (more than about 20 atm or two MPa), a mixture of helium and oxygen (heliox) can lead to high-pressure nervous syndrome, a sort of reverse-anesthetic effect; adding a small amount of nitrogen to the mixture can alleviate the problem.[194][163]
See also
- Abiogenic petroleum origin
- Helium-3 propulsion
- Leidenfrost effect
- Superfluid
- Tracer-gas leak testing method
- Hamilton Cady
Notes
- ^ A few authors dispute the placement of helium in the noble gas column, preferring to place it above beryllium with the alkaline earth metals. They do so on the grounds of helium’s 1s2 electron configuration, which is analogous to the ns2 valence configurations of the alkaline earth metals, and furthermore point to some specific trends that are more regular with helium over beryllium.[5][6][7][8][9] However, the classification of helium with the other noble gases remains near-universal, as its extraordinary inertness is extremely close to that of the other light noble gases neon and argon.[10]
References
- ^ «Standard Atomic Weights: Helium». CIAAW. 1983.
- ^ Shuen-Chen Hwang, Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan (2005). «Noble Gases». Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley. pp. 343–383. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01.
- ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
- ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
- ^ Grochala, Wojciech (1 November 2017). «On the position of helium and neon in the Periodic Table of Elements». Foundations of Chemistry. 20 (2018): 191–207. doi:10.1007/s10698-017-9302-7.
- ^ Bent Weberg, Libby (18 January 2019). ««The» periodic table». Chemical & Engineering News. 97 (3). Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- ^ Grandinetti, Felice (23 April 2013). «Neon behind the signs». Nature Chemistry. 5 (2013): 438. Bibcode:2013NatCh…5..438G. doi:10.1038/nchem.1631. PMID 23609097. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Kurushkin, Mikhail (2020). «Helium’s placement in the Periodic Table from a crystal structure viewpoint». IUCrJ. 7 (4): 577–578. doi:10.1107/S2052252520007769. PMC 7340260. PMID 32695406. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
- ^ Labarca, Martín; Srivaths, Akash (2016). «On the Placement of Hydrogen and Helium in the Periodic System: A New Approach». Bulgarian Journal of Science Education. 25 (4): 514–530. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
- ^ Lewars, Errol G. (5 December 2008). Modeling Marvels: Computational Anticipation of Novel Molecules. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 69–71. ISBN 978-1-4020-6973-4. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016.
- ^ Rayet, G. (1868) «Analyse spectral des protubérances observées, pendant l’éclipse totale de Soleil visible le 18 août 1868, à la presqu’île de Malacca» (Spectral analysis of the protuberances observed during the total solar eclipse, seen on 18 August 1868, from the Malacca peninsula), Comptes rendus … , 67 : 757–759. From p. 758: » … je vis immédiatement une série de neuf lignes brillantes qui … me semblent devoir être assimilées aux lignes principales du spectre solaire, B, D, E, b, une ligne inconnue, F, et deux lignes du groupe G.» ( … I saw immediately a series of nine bright lines that … seemed to me should be classed as the principal lines of the solar spectrum, B, D, E, b, an unknown line, F, and two lines of the group G.)
- ^ Captain C. T. Haig (1868) «Account of spectroscopic observations of the eclipse of the sun, August 18th, 1868» Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 74–80. From p. 74: «I may state at once that I observed the spectra of two red flames close to each other, and in their spectra two broad bright bands quite sharply defined, one rose-madder and the other light golden.»
- ^ Pogson filed his observations of the 1868 eclipse with the local Indian government, but his report wasn’t published. (Biman B. Nath, The Story of Helium and the Birth of Astrophysics (New York, New York: Springer, 2013), p. 8.) Nevertheless, Lockyer quoted from his report. From p. 320 Archived 17 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine of Lockyer, J. Norman (1896) «The story of helium. Prologue,» Nature, 53 : 319–322 : «Pogson, in referring to the eclipse of 1868, said that the yellow line was «at D, or near D.» «
- ^ Lieutenant John Herschel (1868) «Account of the solar eclipse of 1868, as seen at Jamkandi in the Bombay Presidency,» Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 17 : 104–120. From p. 113: As the moment of the total solar eclipse approached, » … I recorded an increasing brilliancy in the spectrum in the neighborhood of D, so great in fact as to prevent any measurement of that line till an opportune cloud moderated the light. I am not prepared to offer any explanation of this.» From p. 117: «I also consider that there can be no question that the ORANGE LINE was identical with D, so far as the capacity of the instrument to establish any such identity is concerned.»
- ^ In his initial report to the French Academy of Sciences about the 1868 eclipse, Janssen made no mention of a yellow line in the solar spectrum. See:
- Janssen (1868) «Indication de quelques-uns des résultats obtenus à Cocanada, pendant l’éclipse du mois d’août dernier, et à la suite de cette éclipse» (Information on some of the results obtained at Cocanada, during the eclipse of the month of last August, and following that eclipse), Comptes rendus … , 67 : 838–839.
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However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that : «Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here.» (See: (Launay, 2012), p. 45.)
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Raccolsi alcun tempo fa una sostanza amorfa di consistenza butirracea e di colore giallo sbiadato sublimata sull’orlo di una fumarola prossima alla bocca di eruzione. Saggiata questa sublimazione allo spettroscopio, ho ravvisato le righe del sodio e del potassio ed una lineare ben distinta che corrisponde esattamente alla D3 che è quella dell’Helium. Do per ora il semplice annunzio del fatto, proponendomi di ritornare sopra questo argomento, dopo di aver sottoposta la sublimazione ad una analisi chimica. (I collected some time ago an amorphous substance having a buttery consistency and a faded yellow color which had sublimated on the rim of a fumarole near the mouth of the eruption. Having analyzed this sublimated substance with a spectroscope, I recognized the lines of sodium and potassium and a very distinct linear line which corresponds exactly to D3, which is that of helium. For the present, I’m making a mere announcement of the fact, proposing to return to this subject after having subjected the sublimate to a chemical analysis.)
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External links
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 15 July 2009, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
General
- U.S. Government’s Bureau of Land Management: Sources, Refinement, and Shortage. With some history of helium.
- U.S. Geological Survey publications on helium beginning 1996: Helium
- Where is all the helium? Aga website
- It’s Elemental – Helium
- Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Chemistry World: Helium
- International Chemical Safety Cards – Helium; includes health and safety information regarding accidental exposures to helium
More detail
- Helium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
- Helium at the Helsinki University of Technology; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4
- Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics – includes a summary of some low temperature techniques
- Video: Demonstration of superfluid helium (Alfred Leitner, 1963, 38 min.)
Miscellaneous
- Physics in Speech with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch
- Article about helium and other noble gases
Helium shortage
- America’s Helium Supply: Options for Producing More Helium from Federal Land: Oversight Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources of the Committee on Natural Resources, U.S. House Of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, Thursday, July 11, 2013
- Helium Program: Urgent Issues Facing BLM’s Storage and Sale of Helium Reserves: Testimony before the Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives Government Accountability Office
- Kramer, David (May 22, 2012). «Senate bill would preserve US helium reserve: Measure would give scientists first dibs on helium should a shortage develop. Physics Today web site». Archived from the original on October 27, 2012.
- Richardson, Robert C.; Chan, Moses (2009). «Helium, when will it run out?» (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-14.
ГЕЛИЙ, He (helium), химический элемент из семейства благородных (инертных) газов He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, составляющих VIIIA подгруппу в периодической системе элементов, или, как ее еще называют, нулевую группу.
История открытия.
Гелий впервые был идентифицирован как химический элемент в 1868 П.Жансеном при изучении солнечного затмения в Индии. При спектральном анализе солнечной хромосферы была обнаружена ярко-желтая линия, первоначально отнесенная к спектру натрия, однако в 1871 Дж.Локьер и П.Жансен доказали, что эта линия не относится ни к одному из известных на земле элементов. Локьер и Э.Франкленд назвали новый элемент гелием от греч. «гелиос», что означает солнце. В то время не знали, что гелий – инертный газ, и предполагали, что это металл. И только спустя почти четверть века гелий был обнаружен на земле. В 1895, через несколько месяцев после открытия аргона, У.Рамзай и почти одновременно шведские химики П.Клеве и Н.Ленгле установили, что гелий выделяется при нагревании минерала клевеита. Год спустя Г.Кейзер обнаружил примесь гелия в атмосфере, а в 1906 гелий был обнаружен в составе природного газа нефтяных скважин Канзаса. В том же году Э.Резерфорд и Т.Ройдс установили, что a-частицы, испускаемые радиоактивными элементами, представляют собой ядра гелия.
Распространенность в природе.
Содержание гелия в мировом пространстве составляет 28% (второе место после водорода). Гелий – основной компонент звездной материи. В результате углеродного цикла (сложная цепь ядерных реакций), впервые изученного Х.Бете в 1939, водород в звездном веществе превращается в гелий, при этом происходит значительное выделение энергии (см. также ЯДЕРНЫЙ СИНТЕЗ). В земной атмосфере гелий составляет всего 0,0005% об., так как он чрезвычайно легок и слабо удерживается гравитационным полем земли. Гелий образуется при распаде тяжелых радиоактивных элементов, находящихся в расплавленном земном ядре, и медленно диффундирует через земную мантию. Тепловая энергия, выделяющаяся при ядерных процессах, поддерживает ядро земли в расплавленном состоянии. Природный метан, добываемый из скважин, содержит ок. 1,75% гелия и 0,5% CO2. После удаления CO2, глубокого охлаждения природного газа до –185° C и сжатия образуется жидкий метан, а в газовой фазе остаются гелий и азот. Метод глубокого охлаждения позволяет получать гелий чистотой 98% и выше.
Свойства.
Гелий имеет одну-единственную электронную оболочку, занятую двумя электронами, т.е. его оболочка полностью заполнена электронами, которые испытывают сильное притяжение ядра, а значит, очень устойчивы; поэтому гелий не вступает в химические реакции, не образует химические соединений и не имеет степеней окисления. Гелий – бесцветный одноатомный газ без запаха; он не вступает в реакции ни с одним химическим элементом, и его атомы не соединяются даже между собой. Наиболее распространенный изотоп 4He содержит в ядре два протона и два нейтрона, поэтому его массовое число равно 4. Более редкий изотоп 3He с одним нейтроном был открыт в 1939 Л.Альваресом и Р.Кернегом. Содержание 3He составляет 10–5% гелия, находящегося в природном газе, добываемом из скважин. 3He получается в ядерных реакциях при распаде трития (3H-изотоп водорода). Гелий – необычное вещество, по свойствам он близок к состоянию идеального газа
СВОЙСТВА 4He |
|
Атомный номер | 2 |
Атомная масса | 4,0026 |
Плотность, г/см3 | 0,178 |
Температура плавления, °С | –272,2 (при 26 атм) |
Температура кипения, °С | –268,93 |
Критическая температура, К | 5,25 |
Критическое давление, МПа | 0,23 |
Содержание в земной коре, % | 0,0000003 |
Степени окисления | – |
Жидкий и твердый гелий.
Жидкий гелий обладает рядом уникальных свойств; он имеет самую низкую температуру кипения: 4He кипит при 4,22 K, а 3He – 3,19 K. Это свойство гелия используют для создания низких температур. Гелий – единственное вещество на земле, которое при нормальном давлении не кристаллизуется вблизи абсолютного нуля, что объясняется слабым межатомным взаимодействием и квантовыми свойствами. Жидкий гелий бесцветен, очень текуч и имеет очень низкое поверхностное натяжение. Изотопы гелия в жидком состоянии сильно различаются. Так, 4He имеет две формы: при температурах выше 2,18 K существует 4He, а ниже 2,18 K происходит необычный переход (фазовый переход второго рода) в 4He-II. Если пустой стеклянный сосуд погрузить в 4He-II, то жидкость будет медленно подниматься вверх по стенкам и перетекать внутрь до выравнивания уровней жидкости снаружи и внутри. Если сосуд приподнять, то процесс пойдет обратно до нового выравнивания уровней жидкостей. Это – пленочное движение; оно характерно только для 4He-II. Другое аномальное свойство 4He-II – способность жидкости перетекать из области более низких температур в область более высоких. 4He-II обладает сверхтекучестью (явление сверхтекучести открыл П.Л.Капица в 1938) – свойством, известным только для жидкого гелия. Явление сверхтекучести объясняется на основе двухжидкостной модели. Согласно ей, 4He-II состоит из двух полностью взаимопроникающих жидкостей – нормальной и сверхтекучей; последняя является идеальной жидкостью и не испытывает сопротивления при протекании через узкие капилляры. Согласно теории, в 4He-II существуют необычные температурные волны (второй звук). Объяснение аномалий 4He-II дается на основе представлений квантовой механики.
Жидкие 3He и 4He называются квантовыми жидкостями. 4He не имеет ядерного спина, а у 3He он равен 1/2 в единицах постоянной Планка. Удивительное различие состоит также в том, что 4He-II – сверхтекучая жидкость, а сопротивление текучести 3He резко возрастает с уменьшением температуры. Гелий-3 становится, однако, сверхтекучим при температуре примерно 0,001 К, как было открыто в 1972. Это явление аналогично явлению сверхпроводимости, которая рассматривается как сверхтекучесть «электронной жидкости» (см. также СВЕРХПРОВОДИМОСТЬ). В 3He обнаружен новый тип звука при очень низких температурах, нулевой звук, предсказанный Л.Д.Ландау и относящийся к волнам, характерным для ионизованных газов (плазмы). См. также СВЕРХТЕКУЧЕСТЬ.
Растворы изотопов гелия также необычны. Ниже 0,9 K раствор спонтанно делится на две части, образуя раствор, обогащенный 3He и текущий над раствором, обогащенным 4He. 6% 3He растворимы в 4He, но 4He не растворяется в 3He при абсолютном нуле.
Твердый гелий можно получить сжатием 4He до 25 атм или 3He до 34 атм при низких температурах. Твердый гелий – кристаллическое прозрачное вещество, причем границу между твердым и жидким гелием трудно обнаружить, так как их рефракции близки.
Применение.
Гелий является важным источником низких температур. При температуре жидкого гелия тепловое движение атомов и свободных электронов в твердых телах практически отсутствует, что позволяет изучать многие новые явления, например сверхпроводимость в твердом состоянии. Газообразный гелий используют как легкий газ для наполнения воздушных шаров. Поскольку он негорюч, его добавляют к водороду для заполнения оболочки дирижабля. Так как гелий хуже растворим в крови, чем азот, большие количества гелия применяют в дыхательных смесях для работ под давлением, например при морских погружениях, при создании подводных тоннелей и сооружений. При использовании гелия декомпрессия (выделение растворенного газа из крови) у водолаза протекает менее болезненно, менее вероятна кессонная болезнь, исключается такое явление, как азотный наркоз, – постоянный и опасный спутник работы водолаза. Смеси He–O2 применяют, благодаря их низкой вязкости, для снятия приступов астмы и при различных заболеваниях дыхательных путей.
Гелий используют как инертную среду для дуговой сварки, особенно магния и его сплавов, при получении Si, Ge, Ti и Zr, для охлаждения ядерных реакторов. Другие применения гелия – для газовой смазки подшипников, в счетчиках нейтронов (гелий-3), газовых термометрах, рентгеновской спектроскопии, для хранения пищи, в переключателях высокого напряжения. В смеси с другими благородными газами гелий используется в наружной неоновой рекламе (в газоразрядных трубках). Жидкий гелий выгоден для охлаждения магнитных сверхпроводников, ускорителей частиц и других устройств. Необычным применением гелия в качестве хладагента является процесс непрерывного смешения 3He и 4He для создания и поддержания температур ниже 0,005 K.
- https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9
- http://www.favorit-nn.ru/articles/?child_id=6
Гелий (He) | |
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Атомный номер | 2 |
Внешний вид | инертный газ без цвета, вкуса и запаха |
Свойства атома | |
Атомная масса (молярная масса) |
4,002602 а. е. м. (г/моль) |
Радиус атома | n/a пм |
Энергия ионизации (первый электрон) |
2361,3(24,47) кДж/моль (эВ) |
Электронная конфигурация | 1s2 |
Химические свойства | |
Ковалентный радиус | n/a пм |
Радиус иона | 93 пм |
Электроотрицательность (по Полингу) |
4,5 |
Электродный потенциал | 0 |
Степени окисления | 0 |
Термодинамические свойства | |
Плотность | 0,147 (при -270 °C) г/см³ |
Удельная теплоёмкость | 5,188 Дж/(K·моль) |
Теплопроводность | 0,152 Вт/(м·K) |
Температура плавления | 0,95 (при 2,5 МПа) K |
Теплота плавления | n/a кДж/моль |
Температура кипения | 4,216 K |
Теплота испарения | 0,08 кДж/моль |
Молярный объём | 31,8 см³/моль |
Кристаллическая решётка | |
Структура решётки | гексагональная |
Период решётки | 3,570 Å |
Отношение c/a | 1,633 |
Температура Дебая | n/a K |
Ге́лий (He) — 2 элемент периодической системы элементов, газ.
Гелий — практически инертный химический элемент. Возглавляет группу инертных газов в периодической таблице. Нетоксичен, не имеет цвета, запаха и вкуса. При нормальных условиях представляет собой одноатомный газ. Его точка кипения (T = 4,216 K) наименьшая среди всех элементов; твёрдый гелий получен лишь при давлениях выше 25 атмосфер — при атмосферном давлении он не переходит в твёрдую фазу даже при абсолютном нуле. Экстремальные условия также необходимы для создания немногочисленных химических соединений гелия, все они нестабильны при стандартных температуре и давлении. Природный гелий состоит из двух стабильных изотопов: 4He (изотопная распространённость — 99,99986 %) и гораздо более редкого 3He (0,00014 %; содержание гелия-3 в разных природных источниках может варьировать в довольно широких пределах). Известны ещё шесть искусственных радиоактивных изотопов гелия.
Гелий занимает второе место по распространённости во Вселенной и лёгкости (после водорода). Однако на Земле гелий редок. Практически весь гелий Вселенной образовался в первые несколько минут после Большого Взрыва, во время первичного нуклеосинтеза. В современной Вселенной почти весь новый гелий образуется в результате термоядерного синтеза из водорода в недрах звёзд. На Земле он образуется в результате альфа-распада тяжёлых элементов (альфа-частицы, излучаемые при альфа-распаде — это ядра гелия-4). Часть гелия, возникшего при альфа-распаде и просачивающегося сквозь породы земной коры, захватывается природным газом, концентрация гелия в котором может достигать 7 % от объёма. Гелий добывается из природного газа процессом низкотемпературного разделения — так называемой фракционной перегонкой (см. Фракционная дистилляция в статье Дистилляция).
История
Открытие гелия началось с 1868 года, когда при наблюдении солнечного затмения два астронома — француз П. Ж. Жансен и англичанин Д. Н. Локьер — независимо друг от друга обнаружили в спектре солнечной короны жёлтую линию (она получила название D3-линии), которую нельзя было приписать ни одному из известных в то время элементов. В 1871 году Локьер объяснил её происхождение присутствием на Солнце нового элемента. В 1895 году англичанин У. Рамзай выделил из природной радиоактивной руды клевеита газ, в спектре которого присутствовала та же D3-линия.
Происхождение названия
Локьер дал гелию имя, отражающее историю его открытия (от греч. Ήλιο (Helio) — солнце). Поскольку Локьер полагал, что обнаруженный элемент — металл, он использовал в латинском названии элемента окончание «-ium» (соответствует русскому окончанию «-ий»), которое обычно употребляется в названии металлов. Таким образом, гелий задолго до своего открытия на Земле получил имя, которое окончанием отличает его от названий остальных инертных газов.
Получение
В настоящее время гелий выделяют из природных гелийсодержащих газов, пользуясь методом глубокого охлаждения (гелий сжижается труднее всех остальных газов). Месторождения таких газов имеются в России, США, Канаде, Китае, Алжире, Польше и Катаре. Гелий содержится также в некоторых минералах (монаците, торианите и других), при этом из 1 кг минерала при нагревании можно выделить до 10 л гелия.
Свойства в газовой фазе
Гелий —— наименее химически активный элемент восьмой группы (инертные газы) таблицы Менделеева. Многие соединения гелия существуют только в газовой фазе в виде так называемых эксимерных молекул, у которых устойчивы возбужденные электронные состояния и неустойчиво основное состояние. Гелий образует двухатомные молекулы He2, фторид HeF, хлорид HeCl (эксимерные молекулы образуются при действии электрического разряда или УФ излучения на смесь гелия газа и фтора (хлора)). При стандартных температуре и давлении гелий ведёт себя практически как идеальный газ. Фактически при всех условиях гелий моноатомный. Он обладает теплопроводностью большей, чем у других газов, кроме водорода, и его удельная теплоёмкость чрезвычайно высока. Гелий также менее растворим в воде, чем любой другой известный газ. Скорость его диффузии сквозь твёрдые материалы в три раза выше, чем у воздуха, и приблизительно на 65 % выше, чем у водорода. Примерный диаметр молекулы He2 — 0,20 нм. Коэффициент преломления гелия ближе к единице, чем у любого другого газа. Этот газ имеет отрицательный коэффициент Джоуля-Томсона при нормальной температуре среды, то есть он нагревается, когда ему дают возможность свободно увеличиваться в объёме. Только ниже температуры инверсии Джоуля-Томсона (приблизительно 40 К при нормальном давлении) он остывает во время свободного расширения. После охлаждения ниже этой температуры, гелий может быть превращён в жидкость при расширительном охлаждении. Такое охлаждение производится при помощи детандера.
Свойства конденсированных фаз
В 1908 году Х.Камерлинг-Оннес впервые смог получить жидкий гелий. Твёрдый гелий удалось получить лишь под давлением 25 атмосфер при температуре около 1 К (В.Кеезом, 1926). Кеезом также открыл наличие фазового перехода гелия-IV при температуре 2,17K; назвал фазы гелий-I и гелий-II (ниже 2,17K). В 1938 году П. Л. Капица обнаружил, что у гелия-II отсутствует вязкость (явление сверхтекучести). В гелии-3 сверхтекучесть возникает лишь при температурах ниже 0,0026 К. Сверхтекучий гелий относится к классу так называемых квантовых жидкостей, макроскопическое поведение которых может быть описано только с помощью квантовой механики. В 2004 году появилось сообщение об открытии сверхтекучести твёрдого гелия, однако интерпретация этого явления не до конца понятна.
Применение
Гелий используют для создания инертной и защитной атмосферы при сварке, резке и плавке металлов, при перекачивании ракетного топлива, для наполнения дирижаблей и аэростатов, как компонент активной среды гелий-неоновых лазеров. Гелий-3 используется для наполнения газовых нейтронных детекторов, как рабочее тело гелиевых течеискателей. Жидкий гелий, самая холодная жидкость на Земле, — уникальный хладагент в экспериментальной физике, позволяющий использовать сверхнизкие температуры в научных исследованиях (например, при изучении электрической сверхпроводимости). Благодаря тому, что гелий очень плохо растворим в крови, его используют как составную часть газовой смеси, подаваемой для дыхания водолазам — замена азота воздуха на гелий предотвращает кессонную болезнь (при вдыхании обычного воздуха содержащийся в нём азот под повышенным давлением растворяется в крови, а при падении давления выделяется из неё в виде пузырьков, закупоривающих мелкие сосуды).
Ссылки
- Гелий на Webelements
- Гелий в Популярной библиотеке химических элементов
- «Гелий» — статья в Физической энциклопедии
H | He | |||||||||||||||||
Li | Be | B | C | N | O | F | Ne | |||||||||||
Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | Ar | |||||||||||
K | Ca | Sc | Ti | V | Cr | Mn | Fe | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | Ga | Ge | As | Se | Br | Kr | |
Rb | Sr | Y | Zr | Nb | Mo | Tc | Ru | Rh | Pd | Ag | Cd | In | Sn | Sb | Te | I | Xe | |
Cs | Ba | * | Hf | Ta | W | Re | Os | Ir | Pt | Au | Hg | Tl | Pb | Bi | Po | At | Rn | |
Fr | Ra | ** | Rf | Db | Sg | Bh | Hs | Mt | Ds | Rg | Uub | Uut | Uuq | Uup | Uuh | Uus | Uuo | |
* | La | Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu | |||
** | Ac | Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr |
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Выделить Гелий и найти в:
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- Страница 0 — краткая статья
- Страница 1 — энциклопедическая статья
- Разное — на страницах: 2 , 3 , 4 , 5
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Комментарии читателей:
химический элемент с атомным номером 2 Химический элемент с атомным номером 2
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Произведение | () | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Внешний вид | бесцветный газ с серым, мутным свечением (или красновато-оранжевым, если используется особенно высокое напряжение) при месте в электрическое поле | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Стандартный атомный вес A r, std (He) | 4.002602 (2) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Гелий в периодической таблице | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Атомный номер (Z) | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Группа | группа 18 (благородные газы) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Период | период 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Блок | s-блок | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Категория элемента | Благородный газ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Конфигурация электронов | 1s | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Электронов на оболочка | 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Физические свойства | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Фаза при STP | газ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Точка плавления | 0,95 K (-272, 20 ° C, — 457,96 ° F) (при 2,5 МПа) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Точка кипения | 4,222 K (-268,928 ° C, -452,070 ° F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Плотность (при стандартном давлении) | 0,1786 г / л | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
в жидком состоянии (при т.пл. ) | 0,145 г / см | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
в жидком состоянии (при bp ) | 0,125 г / см | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Тройная точка | 2,177 K, 5,043 кПа | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Критическая точка | 5,1953 K, 0,22746 МПа | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Теплота плавления | 0,0138 кДж / моль | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Теплота испарения | 0,0829 кДж / моль | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Молярное тепло емкость | 20,78 Дж / (моль · К) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Давление пара (определяется по ITS-90 )
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Атомные свойства | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
состояния окисления | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Электроотрицательность | Шкала Полинга: нет данных | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Энергии ионизации |
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Ковалентный радиус | 28 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ван радиус Ваальса | 140 пм | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Спектральные линии гелия | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Другие | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Естественное происхождение | основное | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Кристаллическая структура | гексагональная плотноупакованная (ГПУ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Скорост ь звука | 972 м / с | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Теплопроводность | 0,1513 Вт / (м · К) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Магнитное упорядочение | диамагнитное | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Магнитная восприимчивость | — 1,88 · 10 см / моль (298 K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Номер CAS | 7440-59-7 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
История | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Обозначение | после Helios, греческое Титан Солнца | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Открытие | Пьер Янссен, Норман Локьер (1868) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Первая изоляция | Уильям Рамзи, Пер Теодор Клив, Абрахам Ланглет (1895) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Основные изотопы гелия | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Категория: гелий.
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Гелий (от греч. : ἥλιος, романизированный : Гелиос, лит. ‘Солнце’) — это химический элемент с символом Heи атомным номером 2. Это бесцветный, без запаха, без вкуса, нетоксичный инертный, одноатомный газ, первая в группе благородных газов в таблица Менделеева. Его точка кипения является самой низкой среди всех элементов. Гелий является вторым по легкости и вторым по содержанию Номер в наблюдаемой вселенной (водород является самым легким и наиболее распространенным элементом). Он составляет около 24% от общей элементарной массы, чем в 12 размах всех более тяжелых элементов взятых вместе. Его численность аналогична этой как в Солнце, так и в Юпитере. Это происходит из-за очень высокой энергии связи ядра (на нуклон ) гелия-4 по отношению к следующему трем элементам после гелия. Эта энергия связи гелия-4 также объясняет, почему он является продуктом как ядерный синтез, так и радиоактивного распада. Большая часть гелия во Вселенной — это гелий-4, подавляющее большинство которого образовалось во время Большого взрыва. Большое количество нового гелия путем ядерного химического синтеза в звезда.
Гелий назван в честь греческого Титана Солнца, Гелиос. Впервые он был обнаружен как неизвестная желтая спектральная линия в солнечном свете во время солнечного затмения в 1868 Жоржем Райе, капитаном CT Хейгом, Норман Р. Погсон и лейтенант Джон Гершель, что подтвердил французский астроном Жюль Янссен. Янссену часто приписывают появление элемента вместе с Норманом Локьером. Янссен зарегистрировал спектральную линию гелия во время солнечного затмения 1868 года, а Локьер наблюдал ее из Великобритании. Локьер был первым, кто предположил, что эта линия связана с новым, который он назвал. Формальное открытие элемента было сделано в 1895 году двумя шведскими химиками, Пер Теодором Клеве и Нильсом Абрахамом Ланглетом, которые появились гелий. происходящий из урановой руды, клевеита, который теперь рассматривается как отдельный вид минералов, а как разновидность уранинита. В 1903 году большие запасы гелия были обнаружены на месторождения природного газа в некоторых частях США, которые сегодня являются крупнейшим поставщиком газа.
Жидкий гелий используется в криогенике (его самое крупное разовое применение, поглощающее около четверти продукции), особенно в охлаждении сверхпроводящих магнитов, при этом Основное коммерческое применение — сканеры МРТ. Другое промышленное использование гелия — в качестве газа для повышения давления и продувки, в качестве защитной атмосферы при дуговой сварке и в процессе такихах, как выращивание кристаллов для изготовления кремниевых пластин — составляет половину газа. произведено. Хорошо известное, но незначительное применение — подъемный газ в аэростатах и дирижаблях. Как и в случае с любым газом, плотность которого отличается от плотности воздуха, вдыхание небольшого количества гелия временно изменяет тембр и качество человеческие голоса. В научных исследованиях поведения двух жидких фаз гелия-4 (гелий I и гелий II) для исследователей, изучающих квантовую механику (в частности свойства сверхтекучести ) и для тех, кто изучает такие свойства, как сверхпроводимость, проявляющая в материи около абсолютного нуля.
На Земле это относительно редко — 5,2 ppm по объему в атмосфере. Большая часть земного гелия, присутствующего сегодня на Земле, образует в результате естественного радиоактивного распада тяжелых радиоактивных элементов (торий и уран, хотя есть и другие примеры), поскольку альфа-частицы, испускаемые такими распадами, состоят из ядер гелия-4 . Этот радиогенный гелий улавливается таким газом в способностих до 7% по объему, из он извлекается в промышленных масштабах с помощью процесса низкотемпературного разделения, называемого фракционной перегонкой. Раньше считалось, что земной гелий — не обновляемый ресурс, потому что, попав в атмосферу, он быстро улетает в космос — считался все более дефицитным. Недавние исследования показывают, что гелий, образовавшийся под землей в результате радиоактивного распада, может накапливаться в запасах природного газа в большем, чем ожидалось, количествах, в некоторых случаях из-за вулканической активности.
Содержание
- 1
- 1.1 Научные открытия
- 1.2 Добыча и использование
- 2 Характеристики
- 2.1 Атом гелия
- 2.1.1 Гелий в квантовой механике
- 2.1.2 Связанная с этим стабильным ядром гелия-4 и электронной оболочки
- 2.2 Газовая и плазменная фаза
- 2.3 Жидкий гелий
- 2.3.1 Гелий I
- 2.3.2 Гелий II
- 2.4 Изотопы
- 2.1 Атом гелия
- 3 Соединения
- 4 Возникновение и образование
- 4.1 Природное изобилие
- 4.2 Современная добыча и распространение
- 4.3 Защитники природы
- 5 Области применения
- 5.1 Контролируемая атмосфера
- 5.2 Сварка вольфрамовым электродом
- 5.3 Незначительные области применения
- 5.3.1 Промышленная утечка обнаружение
- 5.3.2 Полет
- 5.3.3 Незначительное коммерческое и развлекательное использование
- 5.3.4 Научное использование
- 5.3.5 Медицинское использование
- 6 В качестве конт. minant
- 7 Вдыхание и безопасность
- 7.1 Воздействие
- 7.2 Опасности
- 8 См. также
- 9 Примечания
- 10 Ссылки
- 11 Библиография
- 12 Внешние ссылки
История
Научные открытия
Первое свидетельство наличия гелия было обнаружено 18 августа 1868 года. в виде ярко-желтой линии с длиной волны , равной 587,49 нм, в спектре хромосферы Солнца. Линия была обнаружена французским астрономом Жюлем Янссеном во время полного солнечного затмения в Гунтуре, Индия. Первоначально предполагалось, что эта линия — натрий. 20 октября того же года английский астроном Норман Локьер наблюдал желтую линию в солнечном спектре, которую он назвал D 3, потому что она находилась вблизи известного D 1 и D 2линия Фраунгофера линии натрия. Он пришел к выводу, что это было введено в систему Солнца, неизвестным на Земле. Локьер и английский химик Эдвард Франкленд назвали элемент греческим словом, обозначающим Солнце, λιος (helios ).
Спектральные линии гелия
В 1881 году итальянский физик Луиджи Пальмиери впервые обнаружил гелий на Земле по его спектральной линии D 3, когда он проанализировал материал, который был сублимирован во время недавнего извержения Везувия.
Сэр Уильям Рамзи, открывший земной гелий Образец клевеита, из которого Рамзи впервые очистил гелий.
26 марта 1895 года шотландский химик сэр Уильям Рамзи, выделил гелий на Земле путем обработки минерала клевеита (разновидность уранинита, содержащего не менее 10% редкоземельных элементов ) минеральными кислотами. Рамзи искал аргон, но после отделения азота и кислород от газа, выделенного серной кислотой, он заметил ярко-желтая линия, которая соответствует линии D 3, наблюдаемой i в спектре Солнца. Эти образцы были идентифицированы как гелий Локьер и британский физик Уильям Крукс. Он независимо был выделен из клевеита в том же году химиками Пер Теодором Клеве и Авраамом Ланглетом в Уппсале, Швеция, которые собрали достаточно газа, чтобы точно определить его атомный вес. Гелий был также изолирован американским геохимиком Уильямом Фрэнсисом Хиллебрандом до открытия Рамзи, когда он заметил необычные спектральные линии во время тестирования образца минерала уранинита. Однако Хиллебранд приписал эти линии азоту. Его поздравительное письмо Рамзи представляет собой интересный случай открытия и почти открытия в науке.
В 1907 году Эрнест Резерфорд и Томас Ройдс действали, что альфа-частицы уступают ядро гелия , позволяя частицам проникать через тонкую стеклянную стенку откачанной трубки, чтобы изучить новый спектр газа внутри. В 1908 году голландский физик Хайке Камерлинг-Оннес впервые сжижил гелий путем охлаждения газа до менее 5 К (-268,15 ° C; -450,67 ° F). Он укрепил его, увеличив температуру, но ему это не удалось, потому что гелий не затвердевает при атмосферном давлении. Ученик Оннеса Виллем Хендрик Кизом в конце концов смог отвердить 1 см гелия в 1926 году, применив дополнительное внешнее давление.
В 1913 году Нильс Бор опубликовал свою «трилогию» «об атомной структуре, которая включает пересмотр ряда Пикеринга — Фаулера как центрального доказательства его поддержки модели атома. Эта серия названа в честь Эдварда Чарльза Пикеринга, который в 1896 году опубликовал наблюдения ранее неизвестных линий в спектре звезды ζ Puppis (теперь известно, что они встречаются у Wolf –Райет и другие горячие звезды). Пикеринг приписал наблюдение (линии 4551, 5411 и 10123 Å ) новой формы водорода с полуцелыми уровнями перехода. В 1912 году Альфреду Фаулеру не удалось получить соответствующие линии из водородно-гелиевой смеси, и он поддержал вывод Пикеринга об их происхождении. спектральные линии к ионизированному гелию, Он. «спектроскописты окончательно перевели [серию Пикеринга — Фаулера] [с водорода] на гелий». Теоретическая работа Бора над серией Пикеринга необходимость пересмотра проблем, которые, кажется, уже были решены в рамках классических теорий », и дала важное подтверждение его атомной теории.
В 1938 году русский физик Петр Леонидович Капица обнаружил, что гелий-4 почти не имеет вязкости при температурех около абсолютного нуля, это явление теперь называется сверхтекучестью.. Это явление связано с конденсацией Бозе — Эйнштейна. В 1972 году то же самое явление наблюдалось в гелии-3, но при температурех намного более близких к абсолютному нулю, американскими физиками Дугласом Д. Ошероффом, Дэвидом М. Ли и Роберт С. Ричардсон. Считается, что явление в гелии-3 связано со спариванием гелий-3 фермионов с образованием бозонов, по аналогии с куперовскими парами электронов, производящими сверхпроводимость.
Добыча и использование
, обозначающий массивную находку гелия около Декстера, Канзас
После бурения нефтяных скважин в 1903 году в Декстере, штат Канзас, был обнаружен газовый гейзер, чтобы не гореть, геолог штата Канзас Эразм Хаворт собрал образцы выходящего газа и доставил их обратно в Канзасский университет в Лоуренсе, где с помощью химиков Гамильтон Кэди и Дэвид Макфарланд, он обнаружил, что газ состоит по объему из 72% азота, 15% метана (процент горючего только при достаточном количестве кислорода), 1% водород и 12% неидентифицируемый газ. При исследовании Кэди и Макфарланд обнаружено 1,84% пробы газа составлял гелий. Это показало, что, несмотря на его общую редкость на Земле, гелий был сконцентрирован в больших количествах под Американскими Великими равнинами, доступным для добычи в качестве побочного продукта природного газа.
. Это может стать Соединенным Штатам ведущий мировой мировой гелия. По предложению сэра Ричарда Трелфола, ВМС США спонсировали три небольших экспериментальных гелиевых заводов во время Первой мировой войны. Целью было поставить аэростатов заградительного огня с негорючий газ легче воздуха. Всего в рамках программы было произведено 5700 м3 (200000 куб. Футов) 92% гелия, хотя ранее было получено менее кубического метра газа. Часть этого газа была в первом в мире дирижабле, наполненном гелием, дирижабле C-класса C-7 ВМС США, который совершил свой первый рейс с Hampton Roads, штат Вирджиния, в Боллинг Филд в Вашингтоне, округ Колумбия, 1 декабря 1921 года, почти за два года до появления ВМФ первого жесткого дирижабля, наполненного гелием, Военно-морской авиазавод, построенный USS Shenandoah, полетел в сентябре 1923 года.
Хотя процесс экстракции с использованием низкотемпературного сжижения газа не был разработан вовремя, чтобы стать значимым во время Первой мировой войны, производство продолжалось. Гелий в основном использовался в качестве подъемного газа на кораблях легче воздуха. Во время Второй мировой войны спрос на гелий для подъемного газа и для сварки в среде защитной дуги увеличился. гелиевый масс-спектрометр также был жизненно необходим для создания атомной бомбы Манхэттенский проект.
Правительство Соединенных Штатов учредило Национальный гелиевый заповедник в 1925 г., г. Амарилло, Техас, с целью поставки военных дирижаблей во время войны и коммерческих дирижаблей вное время. Из-за Закона о гелии 1925 года, который в то время была монополия на производство США, вместе с непомерно высокой стоимостью газа, Гинденбург, например все немецкие цеппелины были вынуждены использовать водород в качестве подъемного газа. Рынок гелия после Второй мировой войны был в упадке, но в 1950-х годах его запас был расширен, чтобы обеспечить поставку жидкого гелия в качестве охлаждающей жидкости для создания кислородно-водородного ракетного топлива (среди прочего) во время космической гонки и холодной войны. Использование гелия в Соединенных Штатах в 1965 г. более чем в восемь раз превышало пиковое потребление во время войны.
После «поправок к законам о гелию 1960 г.» (публичный закон 86–777) США Горное бюро организовало пять частных заводов по извлечению гелия из природного газа. Для этой программы сохранения гелия Бюро построило трубопровод протяженностью 425 миль (684 км) от Буштона, штат Канзас, чтобы соединить эти заводы с частично истощенным государственным газовым месторождением Клиффсайд недалеко от Амарилло, штат Техас. Эта гелий-азотная смесь закачивалась и хранилась на газовом месторождении Клиффсайд до тех пор, пока не потребовалось, после чего она была подвергнута дальнейшей очистке.
К 1995 году было собрано миллиард кубометров газа, а резерв составил 1,4 доллара США. миллиардов долларов, что побудило Конгресс Соединенных Штатов в 1996 году постепенно ликвидировать резерв. В результате принятый Закон о приватизации гелия от 1996 года (публичный закон 104–273) предписал Министерству внутренних дел США опустошить запасы, начиная с 2005 года.
Гелий, произведенный между 1930 и 1945 годами, имел чистоту около 98,3% (2% азота), что было достаточно для дирижаблей. В 1945 году для сварки было произведено небольшое количество гелия 99,9%. К 1949 году коммерческие количества гелия Grade A 99,95% были доступны.
В течение многих лет Соединенные Штаты производили более 90% коммерческого гелия в мире, в то время как экстракционные заводыв Канаде, Польше, России производили а остальные произвели другие народы. В середине 1990-х годов начал работу новый завод в Арзеве, Алжир, производящий 17 миллионов кубических метров (600 миллионов кубических футов), с объемом производства, достаточным для удовлетворения всех потребностей Европы. Между тем, к 2000 году потребление гелия в США выросло до более чем 15 миллионов кг в год. В 2004–2006 годах были построены дополнительные заводы в Рас-Лаффан, Катар и Скикда, Алжир. Алжир быстро вторым по величине стал гелия. За это время увеличилось как потребление гелия, так и затраты на его производство. С 2002 по 2007 год цены на гелий выросли вдвое.
По состоянию на 2012 год на Национальный запас гелия США приходилось 30 процентов мирового гелия. Ожидалось, что в 2018 году в резерве закончится гелий. Несмотря на это, законопроект, внесенный в Сенат США, разрешит запасу продолжать продажу газа. Другие крупные запасы находились в Hugoton в Канзасе, США, а также в близлежащих газовых месторождениях Канзаса и panhandles в Техас и Оклахома. Новые заводы по производству гелия открылись в 2012 году в Катаре, России и американском штате Вайоминг, но не ожидалось, что они уменьшат дефицит.
В 2013 году в Катаре была запущена крупнейшая в мире установка по производству гелия, дипломатический кризис в Катаре в 2017 году серьезно повлиял на производство гелия. 2014 год был признан годом переизбытка гелиевого бизнеса после нескольких лет известного дефицита. Nasdaq сообщил (2015), что для Air Products, международная корпорация, которая продает газы для промышленного использования, объемы гелия остаются под экономическим давлением из-за ограничений, связанных с поставками сырья.
Характеристики
Атом гелия
Атом гелия. Изображены ро (розовый) и распределение ядра облака (черный). Ядро (вверху справа) в гелии-4 на самом деле сферически симметрично и очень похоже на электронное облако, хотя для более сложных ядер это не всегда так.
Гелий в квантовой механике
В перспективе Согласно квантовой механике, гелий — второй простейший атом для моделирования после атома водорода. Гелий состоит из двух электронов на атомных орбиталях, окружающих ядро, содержащихее два протона и (обычно) два нейтрона. Как и в механике Ньютона, никакая система, состоящая из более чем двух частиц, может быть решена с помощью точного аналитического математического подхода (см. задача трех тел ), и гелий не является исключением. Таким образом, требуются численно-математические методы даже для решения системы одного ядра и двух электронов. Такие методы вычислительной химии использовались для создания квантово-механической картины связывания электронов гелия, которая имеет точность в пределах < 2% of the correct value, in a few computational steps. Such models show that each electron in helium partly screens the nucleus from the other, so that the effective nuclear charge Z which each electron sees, is about 1.69 units, not the 2 charges of a classic «bare» helium nucleus.
истинного ядра гелия-4 и электронной оболочки
Ядро атома гелия -4 идентично альфа-частице. Эксперименты по высокоэнергетическому рассеянию электронов показывают, что его заряд экспоненциально уменьшается от максимума в центральной точке, точно так же, как плотность заряда собственного электронного облака гелия. Эта симметрия отражает эти схожую физическую основу: пара нейтронов и пара протонов в ядре гелия подчиняются тем же квантово-механическим правилам, что и пара электронов гелия (хотя ядерные частицы подвержены другому потенциалу ядерной связи), так что все фермионы полностью занимают орбитали попарно, ни один из них не обладает орбитальным угловым моментом, и каждый компенсирует собственный спин другой. Добавление еще одной из этих частиц потребовало бы углового момента и высвободило бы значительно меньше энергии (фактически, ни одно ядро с пятью нуклонами не является стабильным). Таким образом, такое расположение энергетически устойчиво для всех этих частиц, и эта стабильность обеспечивает многие важные факты, касающиеся гелия в природе.
Например, приводит к самой низкой температуре плавления и кипения из всех, что приводит к самой низкой температуре плавления и кипения из всех. элементы.
Подобным образом особая энергетическая стабильность гелия-4, вызванная аналогичными эффектами, объясняет легкость образования гелия-4 в атомных реакциях, которые включают либо испускание тяжелых частиц, либо синтез. Некоторое количество стабильного гелия-3 (2 протона и 1 нейтрон) образуется в реакции синтеза водорода, но это очень малая часть по сравнению с очень подходящим гелием-4.
Энергия связи на нуклон обычных изотопов. Энергия связи, приходящаяся на одну частьцу гелия-4, значительно больше, чем у всех соседних нуклидов.
Необычная стабильность ядра гелия-4 также важна с космологической точки зрения : она объясняет тот факт, что в первые несколько минут после Большого взрыва, когда «суп» из свободных протонов и нейтронов, который был установлен в ядерном ядре 6: 1, ядерное связывание стало возможным, почти все первые составные атомные ядра образовали новое ядро гелия-4. Связывание гелия-4 было прочным, что образование гелия-4 потребляло почти все свободные нейтроны за несколько минут, прежде чем они могли бета-распадом, а также оставить мало для образования более тяжелых элементов, таких как литий, бериллий или бор. Ядерная связь гелия-4 на нуклон сильнее, чем в любом из этих элементов (см. нуклеогенез и энергия связи ), и, таким образом, после образования гелия не было доступной энергии для его создания. элементы 3, 4 и 5. Для гелия было ли энергетически выгодно сливаться в следующий элемент с более низкой энергией на нуклон, углерод. Однако из-за отсутствия промежуточных элементов этот процесс требует, чтобы три ядра гелия столкнулись друг с другом почти одновременно (см. процесс тройной альфа ). Таким образом, не было времени для образования значительного количества углерода в течение нескольких минут после Большого взрыва, прежде чем ранняя расширяющаяся Вселенная остыла до температуры и давления, при которых синтез гелия с углеродом был невозможен. Это наблюдается сегодня (3 части водорода на 1 часть гелия-4 по массе), когда почти все нейтроны во Вселенной были захвачены гелием-4.
Все более тяжелые элементы (включая те, которые необходимы для каменистых планет, таких как Земля, а также для углеродной или другой жизни), были созданы после Большого взрыва в звездах, которые были достаточно горячими, чтобы плавить сам гелий. Все элементы, кроме водорода и гелия, сегодня составляют всего 2% от массы атомной материи во Вселенной. Гелий-4, напротив, составляет около 23% обычного вещества Вселенной — почти все обычное вещество, не являющееся водородом.
Газовая и плазменная фаза
Гелиевая газоразрядная трубка в атомном символе элемента
Гелий является вторым по названию химически активным благородным газом после неона и, следовательно, вторым вторым реактивным из всех элементов. Он химически инертен и одноатомен во всех стандартных условиях. Из-за относительно низкой молярной (атомной) массы гелия его теплопроводность, удельная теплоемкость и скорость звука в газовой фазе больше, чем у любого другого газа. кроме водорода. По этой причине одноатомные молекулы гелия гелий диффундирует через твердые тела со скоростью, в три раза превышающую скорость воздуха и примерно на 65% быстрее, чем водород.
Гелий является наименее водостойким. растворимый одноатомный газ и один из наименования растворимых в воде любого газа (CF4, SF6 и C4F8 имеют более низкую растворимость мольных долей: 0,3802, 0,4394 и 0,2372 x 2 / 10, соответственно, по сравнению с 0,70797 x 2 / 10 гелия), а показатель преломления гелия ближе к единице, чем у другого газа. Гелий имеет отрицательный коэффициент Джоуля-Томсона при нормальной температуре окружающей среды, что означает, что он нагревается, когда ему дают свободно расширяться. Только ниже его температуры инверсии Джоуля-Томсона (примерно от 32 до 50 К при 1 атмосфере) он охлаждается при свободном расширении. После предварительного охлаждения ниже этой температуры гелий может быть сжижен путем охлаждения расширением.
Большая часть внеземного гелия находится в состоянии плазмы со свойствами, совершенно отличными от свойств атомарного гелия. В плазме электроны гелия не связаны с его ядром, что приводит к очень высокой электропроводности, даже если газ ионизирован лишь частично. На заряженные влияние влияние магнитные и электрические поля. Например, в солнечном ветре вместе с ионизированным водородом частицы взаимодействуют с магнитосферой Земли, вызывая токи Биркеланда и полярное сияние.
Жидкий гелий
Сжиженный гелий. Этот гелий не только жидкий, но и охлажденный до сверхтекучести. Капля жидкости на дне стакана представляет собой гелий, самопроизвольно выходящий из емкости через край, чтобы опорожняться из емкости. Энергия для запуска этого потенциальной энергией падающего гелия.
В отличие от любого другого жидкого элемента, гелий будет оставаться прежним до абсолютного нуля при нормальном давлении. Это прямой эффект квантовой механики: в частности, энергия нулевой точки системы слишком высока, чтобы допустить замерзание. Для твердого гелия требуется температура 1–1,5 К (около –272 ° C или –457 ° F) при давлении около 25 бар (2,5 МПа). Часто трудно отличить твердое тело от жидкого гелия, поскольку показатели преломления двух фаз почти одинаковы. Твердое вещество имеет острую точку плавления и имеет кристаллическую потерю, но при этом обладает высокой сжимаемостью ; применение давления в лаборатории может уменьшить его объем более чем на 30%. При модуле объемной упругости около 27 МПа он в ~ 100 раз более сжимаем, чем вода. Твердый гелий имеет плотность 0,214 ± 0,006 г / см при 1,15 К и 66 атм; Расчетная плотность при 0 К и 25 бар (2,5 МПа) составляет 0,187 ± 0,009 г / см. При более высоких температурах гелий затвердевает под достаточным давлением. При комнатной температуре для этого требуется около 114000 атм.
Гелий I
Ниже его точки кипения 4,22 К (-268,93 ° C; -452,07 ° F) и выше лямбда- точка 2,1768 К (-270,9732 ° C; -455,7518 ° F), изотоп гелий-4 существует в нормальном бесцветном жидком состоянии, называемом гелием I. Как и другие криогенные жидкости, гелий I кипит при нагревании и сжимается при понижении температуры. Однако ниже лямбда-точки гелий не кипит и расширяется при дальнейшем понижении температуры.
Гелий I имеет газообразный показатель преломления, равный 1,026, из-за чего его поверхность настолько трудно различима, что часто используются поплавки из пенополистирола, чтобы показать, где находится поверхность. является. Эта бесцветная жидкость имеет очень низкую вязкость и плотность 0,145–0,125 г / мл (примерно от 0 до 4 К), что составляет всего одну четверть значения, ожидаемого от классической физики. Квантовая механика необходима для объяснения этого свойства, поэтому оба состояния жидкого гелия (гелий I и гелий II) называются квантовыми жидкостями, что означает, что они демонстрируют атомные свойства в макроскопическом масштабе. Это может быть результатом того, что его точка кипения настолько близка к абсолютному нулю, что не позволяет случайному движению молекул (тепловая энергия ) маскировать атомные свойства.
Гелий II
Жидкий гелий ниже своей лямбда-точки (называемый гелием II) проявляет очень необычные характеристики. Благодаря своей высокой теплопроводности, при кипении он не пузырится, а испаряется прямо с поверхности. Гелий-3 также имеет сверхтекучую фазу, но только при гораздо более низких температурах; в результате о свойствах изотопа известно меньше.
В отличие от обычных жидкостей, гелий II будет ползать по поверхности, чтобы достичь того же уровня; через короткое время уровни в двух емкостях выровняются. Пленка Rollin также покрывает внутреннюю часть более крупного контейнера; если бы он не был запечатан, гелий II выполз бы наружу и улетел бы.
Гелий II — сверхтекучая, квантово-механическое состояние (см.: макроскопические квантовые явления ) материи со странными свойствами. Например, когда он протекает через капилляры толщиной от 10 до 10 мкм, он не имеет измеримой вязкости. Однако, когда измерения проводились между двумя движущимися дисками, наблюдалась вязкость, сопоставимая с вязкостью газообразного гелия. Текущая теория объясняет это, используя двухжидкостную модель гелия II. В этой модели жидкий гелий ниже лямбда-точки рассматривается как содержащий часть атомов гелия в основном состоянии, которые являются сверхтекучими и текут с точно нулевой вязкостью, и часть атомов гелия в возбужденном состоянии., которые ведут себя больше как обычная жидкость.
В эффекте фонтана создается камера, которая соединяется с резервуаром с гелием II с помощью спеченного диска, через который легко просачивается сверхтекучий гелий, но через который не может пройти несверхтекучий гелий. Если внутренняя часть контейнера нагревается, сверхтекучий гелий превращается в несверхтекучий гелий. Чтобы поддерживать равновесную долю сверхтекучего гелия, сверхтекучий гелий просачивается и увеличивает давление, заставляя жидкость фонтанировать из контейнера.
Теплопроводность гелия II выше, чем у любого другого известного вещества., в миллион раз больше, чем у гелия I, и в несколько сотен раз больше, чем у меди. Это потому, что теплопроводность происходит за счет исключительного квантового механизма. Большинство материалов, которые хорошо проводят тепло, имеют валентную зону свободных электронов, которые служат для передачи тепла. Гелий II ч
Дата публикации:
07.02.2022
Дата обновления:
23.12.2022
Заместитель директора
Работает в отрасли
c 1999 г.
Гелий — инертный газ без вкуса, запаха и цвета. В периодической таблице Менделеева идет под номером два. Газ получил широкое применение во многих промышленных отраслях, медицине, микроэлектронике, производстве пищевых продуктов. Инертные свойства гелия позволяют использовать его в сварке цветных металлов в качестве защитной газовой оболочки. В отличие от аргона, он обладает более высокой теплопроводностью, а значит, профиль шва получается более широкий. В статье мы подробно расскажем о свойствах благородного газа, его видах и использовании в различных сферах жизни.
Очень немногие химики могли похвастаться тем, что держали в руках хотя бы крохотный пузырек неона или гелия.
Матвей Бронштейн
Содержание статьи
- Свойства гелия
- Способы получения гелия
- Марки гелия
- Где применяется гелий
- Гелиевое течеискание
- Хранение и транспортировка
Свойства гелия
Это элемент с поистине необычными свойствами. Он почти не растворяется воде, легче воздуха в семь раз, но немного тяжелее водорода. Обладает высокой скоростью диффузии. Именно поэтому его перевозят в стальных баллонах.
Температура кипения (при нормальном АД) — минус 268.9˚С. Шведы Н. Ленгле, П. Клеве первыми выяснили, какая масса у гелия — 4,002602(2) а. е. м. (г/моль). Плотность (при 20˚С и АД 750 мм рт.ст.) — 0,00017846 г/см.
Атом состоит из двух электронов. Их орбиты настолько близки, что необходимо затратить много энергии, чтобы оголить ядро. Именно поэтому He считается слабо активным химическим веществом. Слабым межмолекулярным взаимодействием объясняется низкая температура кипения, невысокая теплота испарения и плавления.
Кристаллобразный гелий получают при давлении более 25 атмосфер. Даже чтобы создать химические соединения гелия, нормальные условия не подходят. Он хорошо проводит электричество и тепло. А вязкость крайне низка. Пожалуй, в природе не существует элемента с подобным набором свойств.
Способы получения гелия
Хотя гелий во Вселенной распространен, на Земле он встречается в составах газовых смесей в небольшой концентрации. Добывают его несколькими способами:
- из минералов. Фергюсонит, клевеит, монацит нагревают до температуры 1000˚C. Гелий выделяется вместе с углекислым газом, который удаляют едким натрием;
- из природного газа. Его сильно охлаждают, а из полученной смеси выделяют гелий. Сначала получают концентрат разных газов, с содержанием He около 70 %. Затем с помощью сжатия и охлаждения проходит очистка. На заключительном этапе газ пропускают через адсорбер из активированного угля;
- из воздуха. He — побочный продукт при добыче азота и кислорода. В результате выпаривания в ректификационных колоннах остаются неон и гелий. Затем гелий отделяют жидким водородом или охлажденным активированным углем.
Марки гелия
Гелий марки А и Б — технические газы, отличающиеся степенью очистки и областью применения.
Состав | Марка А (% об. ) | Марка Б (% об.) |
He, не менее | 99,995 | 99,99 |
N, не более | 0,0005 | 0,002 |
O+Ar | 0,0001 | 0,0005 |
Ne, не более | 0,004 | 0,008 |
Водяные пары, не более | 0,0006 | 0,002 |
Углеводороды, не более | 0,0001 | 0,0005 |
CO₂+CO, не более | 0,0002 | 0,001 |
H, не более | 0,0001 | 0,0025 |
Обе марки иногда подвергают дальнейшей очистке с помощью криогенной установки.
Где применяется гелий
Высокая тепло- и электропроводность нe делает его полезным для разных отраслей промышленности и производства.
При выполнении сварочных работ с тугоплавкими, химически чистыми, активными металлами требуется высокая чистота среды. Инертный гелий марки А подходит для создания таких условий.
Поскольку газ не растворяется в воде, его можно использовать при работах на глубине.
В медицине гелиевокислородные смеси применяют для лечения астмы и других болезней дыхательной системы. «Гелиевым воздухом» наполняют баллоны для аквалангистов. Дышать смесью гелия и кислорода легче. Поэтому водолазы могут дольше находиться на глубине, без вредных последствий (например, кессонной болезни).
Гелий легок, обладает низкой плотностью. Поэтому им заполняют не только воздушные шарики для праздников и декора, но и шары для воздухоплавания или метеорологические зонды. Гелий используют при производстве микроэлектроники, аппаратов МРТ, спутников. Им заполнены даже привычные лазерные сканеры штрих-кодов на кассах магазинов.
Жидкий гелий применяют как хладагент для получения сверхнизких температур для разных производственных процессов. В производстве продуктов гелий получил применение как консервант, сохраняющий вкус и цвет продуктов, и упаковочный газ.
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Гелиевое течеискание
Утечка — отверстие в баллоне или технической системе, через которое просачивается содержимое. Если она вовремя не устранена, то со временем произойдет поломка.
Для чего используется гелий? Поскольку этот газ в естественной концентрации низок (5 ppm) и не вступает химические реакции с другими веществами в нормальных условиях, то его применение в течеискании безопасно. Его легко обнаружить при проверке.
Способ основан на создании разного давления на поверхности объекта и течеискателя. Если есть отверстие, то возникает поток газа со стороны высокого на сторону низкого давления.
Таким методом контролируют герметичность:
- в энергетических установках,
- в лабораториях,
- на нефтегазовых предприятиях,
- на промышленном оборудовании.
Хранение и транспортировка
Газ закачивают в коричневые баллоны из углеродистой или легированный стали объемом 10 и 40 литров. Без потери качества, при регулярном освидетельствовании содержимое хранится до двух лет.
Для перемещения используют специальные контейнеры. Перевозка осуществляется в соответствии с мерами безопасности, действующими на выбранном виде транспорта.
Компания «ТАНТАЛ-Д» предлагает различные виды газов для промышленного и бытового использования. Осуществляем доставку по Москве и Московской области.
Источники:
- https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Гелий
- От твёрдой воды до жидкого гелия. В. М. Бродянский
- Химическая термодинамика. А. Мюнстер
ЧАСТО ЗАДАВАЕМЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ
Из минералов, из природного газа, из воздуха.
Во многих отраслях промышленности и производства. Для сварки или работах на глубине, в медицине, микроэлектронике, метеорологии и других сферах.
Какого цвета баллоны для гелия?
Коричневого.
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