Как пишется цифра 100 римскими цифрами

  • Главная
  • Справочник
  • Таблицы
  • Большая таблица Римских цифр от 1 до 1000

Римские цифры — это натуральные числа, записанные при помощи повторения 7 латинских букв, в определённой прописанной правилами последовательности:

I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), M (1000)

Арабские цифры Римские цифры
1 I
2 II
3 III
4 IV
5 V
6 VI
7 VII
8 VIII
9 IX
10 X
11 XI
12 XII
13 XIII
14 XIV
15 XV
16 XVI
17 XVII
18 XVIII
19 XIX
20 XX
21 XXI
22 XXII
23 XXIII
24 XXIV
25 XXV
26 XXVI
27 XXVII
28 XXVIII
29 XXIX
30 XXX
31 XXXI
32 XXXII
33 XXXIII
34 XXXIV
35 XXXV
36 XXXVI
37 XXXVII
38 XXXVIII
39 XXXIX
40 XL
41 XLI
42 XLII
43 XLIII
44 XLIV
45 XLV
46 XLVI
47 XLVII
48 XLVIII
49 XLIX
50 L
51 LI
52 LII
53 LIII
54 LIV
55 LV
56 LVI
57 LVII
58 LVIII
59 LIX
60 LX
61 LXI
62 LXII
63 LXIII
64 LXIV
65 LXV
66 LXVI
67 LXVII
68 LXVIII
69 LXIX
70 LXX
71 LXXI
72 LXXII
73 LXXIII
74 LXXIV
75 LXXV
76 LXXVI
77 LXXVII
78 LXXVIII
79 LXXIX
80 LXXX
81 LXXXI
82 LXXXII
83 LXXXIII
84 LXXXIV
85 LXXXV
86 LXXXVI
87 LXXXVII
88 LXXXVIII
89 LXXXIX
90 XC
91 XCI
92 XCII
93 XCIII
94 XCIV
95 XCV
96 XCVI
97 XCVII
98 XCVIII
99 XCIX
100 C
101 CI
102 CII
103 CIII
104 CIV
105 CV
106 CVI
107 CVII
108 CVIII
109 CIX
110 CX
111 CXI
112 CXII
113 CXIII
114 CXIV
115 CXV
116 CXVI
117 CXVII
118 CXVIII
119 CXIX
120 CXX
121 CXXI
122 CXXII
123 CXXIII
124 CXXIV
125 CXXV
126 CXXVI
127 CXXVII
128 CXXVIII
129 CXXIX
130 CXXX
131 CXXXI
132 CXXXII
133 CXXXIII
134 CXXXIV
135 CXXXV
136 CXXXVI
137 CXXXVII
138 CXXXVIII
139 CXXXIX
140 CXL
141 CXLI
142 CXLII
143 CXLIII
144 CXLIV
145 CXLV
146 CXLVI
147 CXLVII
148 CXLVIII
149 CXLIX
150 CL
151 CLI
152 CLII
153 CLIII
154 CLIV
155 CLV
156 CLVI
157 CLVII
158 CLVIII
159 CLIX
160 CLX
161 CLXI
162 CLXII
163 CLXIII
164 CLXIV
165 CLXV
166 CLXVI
167 CLXVII
168 CLXVIII
169 CLXIX
170 CLXX
171 CLXXI
172 CLXXII
173 CLXXIII
174 CLXXIV
175 CLXXV
176 CLXXVI
177 CLXXVII
178 CLXXVIII
179 CLXXIX
180 CLXXX
181 CLXXXI
182 CLXXXII
183 CLXXXIII
184 CLXXXIV
185 CLXXXV
186 CLXXXVI
187 CLXXXVII
188 CLXXXVIII
189 CLXXXIX
190 CXC
191 CXCI
192 CXCII
193 CXCIII
194 CXCIV
195 CXCV
196 CXCVI
197 CXCVII
198 CXCVIII
199 CXCIX
200 CC
201 CCI
202 CCII
203 CCIII
204 CCIV
205 CCV
206 CCVI
207 CCVII
208 CCVIII
209 CCIX
210 CCX
211 CCXI
212 CCXII
213 CCXIII
214 CCXIV
215 CCXV
216 CCXVI
217 CCXVII
218 CCXVIII
219 CCXIX
220 CCXX
221 CCXXI
222 CCXXII
223 CCXXIII
224 CCXXIV
225 CCXXV
226 CCXXVI
227 CCXXVII
228 CCXXVIII
229 CCXXIX
230 CCXXX
231 CCXXXI
232 CCXXXII
233 CCXXXIII
234 CCXXXIV
235 CCXXXV
236 CCXXXVI
237 CCXXXVII
238 CCXXXVIII
239 CCXXXIX
240 CCXL
241 CCXLI
242 CCXLII
243 CCXLIII
244 CCXLIV
245 CCXLV
246 CCXLVI
247 CCXLVII
248 CCXLVIII
249 CCXLIX
250 CCL
251 CCLI
252 CCLII
253 CCLIII
254 CCLIV
255 CCLV
256 CCLVI
257 CCLVII
258 CCLVIII
259 CCLIX
260 CCLX
261 CCLXI
262 CCLXII
263 CCLXIII
264 CCLXIV
265 CCLXV
266 CCLXVI
267 CCLXVII
268 CCLXVIII
269 CCLXIX
270 CCLXX
271 CCLXXI
272 CCLXXII
273 CCLXXIII
274 CCLXXIV
275 CCLXXV
276 CCLXXVI
277 CCLXXVII
278 CCLXXVIII
279 CCLXXIX
280 CCLXXX
281 CCLXXXI
282 CCLXXXII
283 CCLXXXIII
284 CCLXXXIV
285 CCLXXXV
286 CCLXXXVI
287 CCLXXXVII
288 CCLXXXVIII
289 CCLXXXIX
290 CCXC
291 CCXCI
292 CCXCII
293 CCXCIII
294 CCXCIV
295 CCXCV
296 CCXCVI
297 CCXCVII
298 CCXCVIII
299 CCXCIX
300 CCC
301 CCCI
302 CCCII
303 CCCIII
304 CCCIV
305 CCCV
306 CCCVI
307 CCCVII
308 CCCVIII
309 CCCIX
310 CCCX
311 CCCXI
312 CCCXII
313 CCCXIII
314 CCCXIV
315 CCCXV
316 CCCXVI
317 CCCXVII
318 CCCXVIII
319 CCCXIX
320 CCCXX
321 CCCXXI
322 CCCXXII
323 CCCXXIII
324 CCCXXIV
325 CCCXXV
326 CCCXXVI
327 CCCXXVII
328 CCCXXVIII
329 CCCXXIX
330 CCCXXX
331 CCCXXXI
332 CCCXXXII
333 CCCXXXIII
334 CCCXXXIV
335 CCCXXXV
336 CCCXXXVI
337 CCCXXXVII
338 CCCXXXVIII
339 CCCXXXIX
340 CCCXL
341 CCCXLI
342 CCCXLII
343 CCCXLIII
344 CCCXLIV
345 CCCXLV
346 CCCXLVI
347 CCCXLVII
348 CCCXLVIII
349 CCCXLIX
350 CCCL
351 CCCLI
352 CCCLII
353 CCCLIII
354 CCCLIV
355 CCCLV
356 CCCLVI
357 CCCLVII
358 CCCLVIII
359 CCCLIX
360 CCCLX
361 CCCLXI
362 CCCLXII
363 CCCLXIII
364 CCCLXIV
365 CCCLXV
366 CCCLXVI
367 CCCLXVII
368 CCCLXVIII
369 CCCLXIX
370 CCCLXX
371 CCCLXXI
372 CCCLXXII
373 CCCLXXIII
374 CCCLXXIV
375 CCCLXXV
376 CCCLXXVI
377 CCCLXXVII
378 CCCLXXVIII
379 CCCLXXIX
380 CCCLXXX
381 CCCLXXXI
382 CCCLXXXII
383 CCCLXXXIII
384 CCCLXXXIV
385 CCCLXXXV
386 CCCLXXXVI
387 CCCLXXXVII
388 CCCLXXXVIII
389 CCCLXXXIX
390 CCCXC
391 CCCXCI
392 CCCXCII
393 CCCXCIII
394 CCCXCIV
395 CCCXCV
396 CCCXCVI
397 CCCXCVII
398 CCCXCVIII
399 CCCXCIX
400 CD
401 CDI
402 CDII
403 CDIII
404 CDIV
405 CDV
406 CDVI
407 CDVII
408 CDVIII
409 CDIX
410 CDX
411 CDXI
412 CDXII
413 CDXIII
414 CDXIV
415 CDXV
416 CDXVI
417 CDXVII
418 CDXVIII
419 CDXIX
420 CDXX
421 CDXXI
422 CDXXII
423 CDXXIII
424 CDXXIV
425 CDXXV
426 CDXXVI
427 CDXXVII
428 CDXXVIII
429 CDXXIX
430 CDXXX
431 CDXXXI
432 CDXXXII
433 CDXXXIII
434 CDXXXIV
435 CDXXXV
436 CDXXXVI
437 CDXXXVII
438 CDXXXVIII
439 CDXXXIX
440 CDXL
441 CDXLI
442 CDXLII
443 CDXLIII
444 CDXLIV
445 CDXLV
446 CDXLVI
447 CDXLVII
448 CDXLVIII
449 CDXLIX
450 CDL
451 CDLI
452 CDLII
453 CDLIII
454 CDLIV
455 CDLV
456 CDLVI
457 CDLVII
458 CDLVIII
459 CDLIX
460 CDLX
461 CDLXI
462 CDLXII
463 CDLXIII
464 CDLXIV
465 CDLXV
466 CDLXVI
467 CDLXVII
468 CDLXVIII
469 CDLXIX
470 CDLXX
471 CDLXXI
472 CDLXXII
473 CDLXXIII
474 CDLXXIV
475 CDLXXV
476 CDLXXVI
477 CDLXXVII
478 CDLXXVIII
479 CDLXXIX
480 CDLXXX
481 CDLXXXI
482 CDLXXXII
483 CDLXXXIII
484 CDLXXXIV
485 CDLXXXV
486 CDLXXXVI
487 CDLXXXVII
488 CDLXXXVIII
489 CDLXXXIX
490 CDXC
491 CDXCI
492 CDXCII
493 CDXCIII
494 CDXCIV
495 CDXCV
496 CDXCVI
497 CDXCVII
498 CDXCVIII
499 CDXCIX
500 D
501 DI
502 DII
503 DIII
504 DIV
505 DV
506 DVI
507 DVII
508 DVIII
509 DIX
510 DX
511 DXI
512 DXII
513 DXIII
514 DXIV
515 DXV
516 DXVI
517 DXVII
518 DXVIII
519 DXIX
520 DXX
521 DXXI
522 DXXII
523 DXXIII
524 DXXIV
525 DXXV
526 DXXVI
527 DXXVII
528 DXXVIII
529 DXXIX
530 DXXX
531 DXXXI
532 DXXXII
533 DXXXIII
534 DXXXIV
535 DXXXV
536 DXXXVI
537 DXXXVII
538 DXXXVIII
539 DXXXIX
540 DXL
541 DXLI
542 DXLII
543 DXLIII
544 DXLIV
545 DXLV
546 DXLVI
547 DXLVII
548 DXLVIII
549 DXLIX
550 DL
551 DLI
552 DLII
553 DLIII
554 DLIV
555 DLV
556 DLVI
557 DLVII
558 DLVIII
559 DLIX
560 DLX
561 DLXI
562 DLXII
563 DLXIII
564 DLXIV
565 DLXV
566 DLXVI
567 DLXVII
568 DLXVIII
569 DLXIX
570 DLXX
571 DLXXI
572 DLXXII
573 DLXXIII
574 DLXXIV
575 DLXXV
576 DLXXVI
577 DLXXVII
578 DLXXVIII
579 DLXXIX
580 DLXXX
581 DLXXXI
582 DLXXXII
583 DLXXXIII
584 DLXXXIV
585 DLXXXV
586 DLXXXVI
587 DLXXXVII
588 DLXXXVIII
589 DLXXXIX
590 DXC
591 DXCI
592 DXCII
593 DXCIII
594 DXCIV
595 DXCV
596 DXCVI
597 DXCVII
598 DXCVIII
599 DXCIX
600 DC
601 DCI
602 DCII
603 DCIII
604 DCIV
605 DCV
606 DCVI
607 DCVII
608 DCVIII
609 DCIX
610 DCX
611 DCXI
612 DCXII
613 DCXIII
614 DCXIV
615 DCXV
616 DCXVI
617 DCXVII
618 DCXVIII
619 DCXIX
620 DCXX
621 DCXXI
622 DCXXII
623 DCXXIII
624 DCXXIV
625 DCXXV
626 DCXXVI
627 DCXXVII
628 DCXXVIII
629 DCXXIX
630 DCXXX
631 DCXXXI
632 DCXXXII
633 DCXXXIII
634 DCXXXIV
635 DCXXXV
636 DCXXXVI
637 DCXXXVII
638 DCXXXVIII
639 DCXXXIX
640 DCXL
641 DCXLI
642 DCXLII
643 DCXLIII
644 DCXLIV
645 DCXLV
646 DCXLVI
647 DCXLVII
648 DCXLVIII
649 DCXLIX
650 DCL
651 DCLI
652 DCLII
653 DCLIII
654 DCLIV
655 DCLV
656 DCLVI
657 DCLVII
658 DCLVIII
659 DCLIX
660 DCLX
661 DCLXI
662 DCLXII
663 DCLXIII
664 DCLXIV
665 DCLXV
666 DCLXVI
667 DCLXVII
668 DCLXVIII
669 DCLXIX
670 DCLXX
671 DCLXXI
672 DCLXXII
673 DCLXXIII
674 DCLXXIV
675 DCLXXV
676 DCLXXVI
677 DCLXXVII
678 DCLXXVIII
679 DCLXXIX
680 DCLXXX
681 DCLXXXI
682 DCLXXXII
683 DCLXXXIII
684 DCLXXXIV
685 DCLXXXV
686 DCLXXXVI
687 DCLXXXVII
688 DCLXXXVIII
689 DCLXXXIX
690 DCXC
691 DCXCI
692 DCXCII
693 DCXCIII
694 DCXCIV
695 DCXCV
696 DCXCVI
697 DCXCVII
698 DCXCVIII
699 DCXCIX
700 DCC
701 DCCI
702 DCCII
703 DCCIII
704 DCCIV
705 DCCV
706 DCCVI
707 DCCVII
708 DCCVIII
709 DCCIX
710 DCCX
711 DCCXI
712 DCCXII
713 DCCXIII
714 DCCXIV
715 DCCXV
716 DCCXVI
717 DCCXVII
718 DCCXVIII
719 DCCXIX
720 DCCXX
721 DCCXXI
722 DCCXXII
723 DCCXXIII
724 DCCXXIV
725 DCCXXV
726 DCCXXVI
727 DCCXXVII
728 DCCXXVIII
729 DCCXXIX
730 DCCXXX
731 DCCXXXI
732 DCCXXXII
733 DCCXXXIII
734 DCCXXXIV
735 DCCXXXV
736 DCCXXXVI
737 DCCXXXVII
738 DCCXXXVIII
739 DCCXXXIX
740 DCCXL
741 DCCXLI
742 DCCXLII
743 DCCXLIII
744 DCCXLIV
745 DCCXLV
746 DCCXLVI
747 DCCXLVII
748 DCCXLVIII
749 DCCXLIX
750 DCCL
751 DCCLI
752 DCCLII
753 DCCLIII
754 DCCLIV
755 DCCLV
756 DCCLVI
757 DCCLVII
758 DCCLVIII
759 DCCLIX
760 DCCLX
761 DCCLXI
762 DCCLXII
763 DCCLXIII
764 DCCLXIV
765 DCCLXV
766 DCCLXVI
767 DCCLXVII
768 DCCLXVIII
769 DCCLXIX
770 DCCLXX
771 DCCLXXI
772 DCCLXXII
773 DCCLXXIII
774 DCCLXXIV
775 DCCLXXV
776 DCCLXXVI
777 DCCLXXVII
778 DCCLXXVIII
779 DCCLXXIX
780 DCCLXXX
781 DCCLXXXI
782 DCCLXXXII
783 DCCLXXXIII
784 DCCLXXXIV
785 DCCLXXXV
786 DCCLXXXVI
787 DCCLXXXVII
788 DCCLXXXVIII
789 DCCLXXXIX
790 DCCXC
791 DCCXCI
792 DCCXCII
793 DCCXCIII
794 DCCXCIV
795 DCCXCV
796 DCCXCVI
797 DCCXCVII
798 DCCXCVIII
799 DCCXCIX
800 DCCC
801 DCCCI
802 DCCCII
803 DCCCIII
804 DCCCIV
805 DCCCV
806 DCCCVI
807 DCCCVII
808 DCCCVIII
809 DCCCIX
810 DCCCX
811 DCCCXI
812 DCCCXII
813 DCCCXIII
814 DCCCXIV
815 DCCCXV
816 DCCCXVI
817 DCCCXVII
818 DCCCXVIII
819 DCCCXIX
820 DCCCXX
821 DCCCXXI
822 DCCCXXII
823 DCCCXXIII
824 DCCCXXIV
825 DCCCXXV
826 DCCCXXVI
827 DCCCXXVII
828 DCCCXXVIII
829 DCCCXXIX
830 DCCCXXX
831 DCCCXXXI
832 DCCCXXXII
833 DCCCXXXIII
834 DCCCXXXIV
835 DCCCXXXV
836 DCCCXXXVI
837 DCCCXXXVII
838 DCCCXXXVIII
839 DCCCXXXIX
840 DCCCXL
841 DCCCXLI
842 DCCCXLII
843 DCCCXLIII
844 DCCCXLIV
845 DCCCXLV
846 DCCCXLVI
847 DCCCXLVII
848 DCCCXLVIII
849 DCCCXLIX
850 DCCCL
851 DCCCLI
852 DCCCLII
853 DCCCLIII
854 DCCCLIV
855 DCCCLV
856 DCCCLVI
857 DCCCLVII
858 DCCCLVIII
859 DCCCLIX
860 DCCCLX
861 DCCCLXI
862 DCCCLXII
863 DCCCLXIII
864 DCCCLXIV
865 DCCCLXV
866 DCCCLXVI
867 DCCCLXVII
868 DCCCLXVIII
869 DCCCLXIX
870 DCCCLXX
871 DCCCLXXI
872 DCCCLXXII
873 DCCCLXXIII
874 DCCCLXXIV
875 DCCCLXXV
876 DCCCLXXVI
877 DCCCLXXVII
878 DCCCLXXVIII
879 DCCCLXXIX
880 DCCCLXXX
881 DCCCLXXXI
882 DCCCLXXXII
883 DCCCLXXXIII
884 DCCCLXXXIV
885 DCCCLXXXV
886 DCCCLXXXVI
887 DCCCLXXXVII
888 DCCCLXXXVIII
889 DCCCLXXXIX
890 DCCCXC
891 DCCCXCI
892 DCCCXCII
893 DCCCXCIII
894 DCCCXCIV
895 DCCCXCV
896 DCCCXCVI
897 DCCCXCVII
898 DCCCXCVIII
899 DCCCXCIX
900 CM
901 CMI
902 CMII
903 CMIII
904 CMIV
905 CMV
906 CMVI
907 CMVII
908 CMVIII
909 CMIX
910 CMX
911 CMXI
912 CMXII
913 CMXIII
914 CMXIV
915 CMXV
916 CMXVI
917 CMXVII
918 CMXVIII
919 CMXIX
920 CMXX
921 CMXXI
922 CMXXII
923 CMXXIII
924 CMXXIV
925 CMXXV
926 CMXXVI
927 CMXXVII
928 CMXXVIII
929 CMXXIX
930 CMXXX
931 CMXXXI
932 CMXXXII
933 CMXXXIII
934 CMXXXIV
935 CMXXXV
936 CMXXXVI
937 CMXXXVII
938 CMXXXVIII
939 CMXXXIX
940 CMXL
941 CMXLI
942 CMXLII
943 CMXLIII
944 CMXLIV
945 CMXLV
946 CMXLVI
947 CMXLVII
948 CMXLVIII
949 CMXLIX
950 CML
951 CMLI
952 CMLII
953 CMLIII
954 CMLIV
955 CMLV
956 CMLVI
957 CMLVII
958 CMLVIII
959 CMLIX
960 CMLX
961 CMLXI
962 CMLXII
963 CMLXIII
964 CMLXIV
965 CMLXV
966 CMLXVI
967 CMLXVII
968 CMLXVIII
969 CMLXIX
970 CMLXX
971 CMLXXI
972 CMLXXII
973 CMLXXIII
974 CMLXXIV
975 CMLXXV
976 CMLXXVI
977 CMLXXVII
978 CMLXXVIII
979 CMLXXIX
980 CMLXXX
981 CMLXXXI
982 CMLXXXII
983 CMLXXXIII
984 CMLXXXIV
985 CMLXXXV
986 CMLXXXVI
987 CMLXXXVII
988 CMLXXXVIII
989 CMLXXXIX
990 CMXC
991 CMXCI
992 CMXCII
993 CMXCIII
994 CMXCIV
995 CMXCV
996 CMXCVI
997 CMXCVII
998 CMXCVIII
999 CMXCIX
1000 M

На сегодняшний день в рамках общих правил число 15 правильно записывать в такой последовательности XV и не VVV или XIIIII.

Источник

Если материал понравился Вам и оказался для Вас полезным, поделитесь им со своими друзьями!

  • Воздух – это смесь газов, и которых состоит атмосфера нашей планеты Земля. Воздух состоит из азота (около 80% объема) , кислорода, благородных газов, даже углекислого газа.

  • Чтобы узнать вес человека, достаточно знать его рост в сантиметрах, из этой цифры вычесть 100, а к полученному числу либо прибавить 10, если речь идет о мужчине, либо отнять 10, если вычисляется вес женщины.

  • Лошадиная сила — единица мощности. Она примерно равна значению в 75 кгс/м/с., что соответствует усилию, которое необходимо затратить для подъёма груза в 75 кг. на высоту одно метра за одну секунду.

  • В одном километре содержится тысяча метров. 1 км = 1000 м

  • Bitcoin, Биткойн, часто Биткоин (от англ. bit — единица информации «бит», англ. coin — «монета») — пиринговая (как торрент или e-mule) электронная платёжная система, использующая одноимённую виртуальную валюту.

  • Морскую милю приравняли к 1862 метрам, сухопутная американская миля равна 1.609344 километра.

тату с цифрами

Если вы планируете татуировку с какой-то датой, вам пригодится эта таблица, чтобы составить своё число для тату.

Арабские цифры

Римские цифры

1

I

2

II

3

III

4

IV

5

V

6

VI

7

VII

8

VIII

9

IX

10

X

11

XI

12

XII

13

XIII

14

XIV

15

XV

16

XVI

17

XVII

18

XVIII

19

XIX

20

XX

21

XXI

22

XXII

23

XXIII

24

XXIV

25

XXV

26

XXVI

27

XXVII

28

XXVIII

29

XXIX

30

XXX

31

XXXI

32

XXXII

33

XXXIII

34

XXXIV

35

XXXV

36

XXXVI

37

XXXVII

38

XXXVIII

39

XXXIX

40

XL

41

XLI

42

XLII

43

XLIII

44

XLIV

45

XLV

46

XLVI

47

XLVII

48

XLVIII

49

XLIX

50

L

51

LI

52

LII

53

LIII

54

LIV

55

LV

56

LVI

57

LVII

58

LVIII

59

LIX

60

LX

61

LXI

62

LXII

63

LXIII

64

LXIV

65

LXV

66

LXVI

67

LXVII

68

LXVIII

69

LXIX

70

LXX

71

LXXI

72

LXXII

73

LXXIII

74

LXXIV

75

LXXV

76

LXXVI

77

LXXVII

78

LXXVIII

79

LXXIX

80

LXXX

81

LXXXI

82

LXXXII

83

LXXXIII

84

LXXXIV

85

LXXXV

86

LXXXVI

87

LXXXVII

88

LXXXVIII

89

LXXXIX

90

XC

91

XCI

92

XCII

93

XCIII

94

XCIV

95

XCV

96

XCVI

97

XCVII

98

XCVIII

99

XCIX

100

C

101

CI

102

CII

103

CIII

104

CIV

105

CV

106

CVI

107

CVII

108

CVIII

109

CIX

110

CX

111

CXI

112

CXII

113

CXIII

114

CXIV

115

CXV

116

CXVI

117

CXVII

118

CXVIII

119

CXIX

120

CXX

121

CXXI

122

CXXII

123

CXXIII

124

CXXIV

125

CXXV

126

CXXVI

127

CXXVII

128

CXXVIII

129

CXXIX

130

CXXX

131

CXXXI

132

CXXXII

133

CXXXIII

134

CXXXIV

135

CXXXV

136

CXXXVI

137

CXXXVII

138

CXXXVIII

139

CXXXIX

140

CXL

141

CXLI

142

CXLII

143

CXLIII

144

CXLIV

145

CXLV

146

CXLVI

147

CXLVII

148

CXLVIII

149

CXLIX

150

CL

151

CLI

152

CLII

153

CLIII

154

CLIV

155

CLV

156

CLVI

157

CLVII

158

CLVIII

159

CLIX

160

CLX

161

CLXI

162

CLXII

163

CLXIII

164

CLXIV

165

CLXV

166

CLXVI

167

CLXVII

168

CLXVIII

169

CLXIX

170

CLXX

171

CLXXI

172

CLXXII

173

CLXXIII

174

CLXXIV

175

CLXXV

176

CLXXVI

177

CLXXVII

178

CLXXVIII

179

CLXXIX

180

CLXXX

181

CLXXXI

182

CLXXXII

183

CLXXXIII

184

CLXXXIV

185

CLXXXV

186

CLXXXVI

187

CLXXXVII

188

CLXXXVIII

189

CLXXXIX

190

CXC

191

CXCI

192

CXCII

193

CXCIII

194

CXCIV

195

CXCV

196

CXCVI

197

CXCVII

198

CXCVIII

199

CXCIX

200

CC

201

CCI

202

CCII

203

CCIII

204

CCIV

205

CCV

206

CCVI

207

CCVII

208

CCVIII

209

CCIX

210

CCX

211

CCXI

212

CCXII

213

CCXIII

214

CCXIV

215

CCXV

216

CCXVI

217

CCXVII

218

CCXVIII

219

CCXIX

220

CCXX

221

CCXXI

222

CCXXII

223

CCXXIII

224

CCXXIV

225

CCXXV

226

CCXXVI

227

CCXXVII

228

CCXXVIII

229

CCXXIX

230

CCXXX

231

CCXXXI

232

CCXXXII

233

CCXXXIII

234

CCXXXIV

235

CCXXXV

236

CCXXXVI

237

CCXXXVII

238

CCXXXVIII

239

CCXXXIX

240

CCXL

241

CCXLI

242

CCXLII

243

CCXLIII

244

CCXLIV

245

CCXLV

246

CCXLVI

247

CCXLVII

248

CCXLVIII

249

CCXLIX

250

CCL

251

CCLI

252

CCLII

253

CCLIII

254

CCLIV

255

CCLV

256

CCLVI

257

CCLVII

258

CCLVIII

259

CCLIX

260

CCLX

261

CCLXI

262

CCLXII

263

CCLXIII

264

CCLXIV

265

CCLXV

266

CCLXVI

267

CCLXVII

268

CCLXVIII

269

CCLXIX

270

CCLXX

271

CCLXXI

272

CCLXXII

273

CCLXXIII

274

CCLXXIV

275

CCLXXV

276

CCLXXVI

277

CCLXXVII

278

CCLXXVIII

279

CCLXXIX

280

CCLXXX

281

CCLXXXI

282

CCLXXXII

283

CCLXXXIII

284

CCLXXXIV

285

CCLXXXV

286

CCLXXXVI

287

CCLXXXVII

288

CCLXXXVIII

289

CCLXXXIX

290

CCXC

291

CCXCI

292

CCXCII

293

CCXCIII

294

CCXCIV

295

CCXCV

296

CCXCVI

297

CCXCVII

298

CCXCVIII

299

CCXCIX

300

CCC

301

CCCI

302

CCCII

303

CCCIII

304

CCCIV

305

CCCV

306

CCCVI

307

CCCVII

308

CCCVIII

309

CCCIX

310

CCCX

311

CCCXI

312

CCCXII

313

CCCXIII

314

CCCXIV

315

CCCXV

316

CCCXVI

317

CCCXVII

318

CCCXVIII

319

CCCXIX

320

CCCXX

321

CCCXXI

322

CCCXXII

323

CCCXXIII

324

CCCXXIV

325

CCCXXV

326

CCCXXVI

327

CCCXXVII

328

CCCXXVIII

329

CCCXXIX

330

CCCXXX

331

CCCXXXI

332

CCCXXXII

333

CCCXXXIII

334

CCCXXXIV

335

CCCXXXV

336

CCCXXXVI

337

CCCXXXVII

338

CCCXXXVIII

339

CCCXXXIX

340

CCCXL

341

CCCXLI

342

CCCXLII

343

CCCXLIII

344

CCCXLIV

345

CCCXLV

346

CCCXLVI

347

CCCXLVII

348

CCCXLVIII

349

CCCXLIX

350

CCCL

351

CCCLI

352

CCCLII

353

CCCLIII

354

CCCLIV

355

CCCLV

356

CCCLVI

357

CCCLVII

358

CCCLVIII

359

CCCLIX

360

CCCLX

361

CCCLXI

362

CCCLXII

363

CCCLXIII

364

CCCLXIV

365

CCCLXV

366

CCCLXVI

367

CCCLXVII

368

CCCLXVIII

369

CCCLXIX

370

CCCLXX

371

CCCLXXI

372

CCCLXXII

373

CCCLXXIII

374

CCCLXXIV

375

CCCLXXV

376

CCCLXXVI

377

CCCLXXVII

378

CCCLXXVIII

379

CCCLXXIX

380

CCCLXXX

381

CCCLXXXI

382

CCCLXXXII

383

CCCLXXXIII

384

CCCLXXXIV

385

CCCLXXXV

386

CCCLXXXVI

387

CCCLXXXVII

388

CCCLXXXVIII

389

CCCLXXXIX

390

CCCXC

391

CCCXCI

392

CCCXCII

393

CCCXCIII

394

CCCXCIV

395

CCCXCV

396

CCCXCVI

397

CCCXCVII

398

CCCXCVIII

399

CCCXCIX

400

CD

401

CDI

402

CDII

403

CDIII

404

CDIV

405

CDV

406

CDVI

407

CDVII

408

CDVIII

409

CDIX

410

CDX

411

CDXI

412

CDXII

413

CDXIII

414

CDXIV

415

CDXV

416

CDXVI

417

CDXVII

418

CDXVIII

419

CDXIX

420

CDXX

421

CDXXI

422

CDXXII

423

CDXXIII

424

CDXXIV

425

CDXXV

426

CDXXVI

427

CDXXVII

428

CDXXVIII

429

CDXXIX

430

CDXXX

431

CDXXXI

432

CDXXXII

433

CDXXXIII

434

CDXXXIV

435

CDXXXV

436

CDXXXVI

437

CDXXXVII

438

CDXXXVIII

439

CDXXXIX

440

CDXL

441

CDXLI

442

CDXLII

443

CDXLIII

444

CDXLIV

445

CDXLV

446

CDXLVI

447

CDXLVII

448

CDXLVIII

449

CDXLIX

450

CDL

451

CDLI

452

CDLII

453

CDLIII

454

CDLIV

455

CDLV

456

CDLVI

457

CDLVII

458

CDLVIII

459

CDLIX

460

CDLX

461

CDLXI

462

CDLXII

463

CDLXIII

464

CDLXIV

465

CDLXV

466

CDLXVI

467

CDLXVII

468

CDLXVIII

469

CDLXIX

470

CDLXX

471

CDLXXI

472

CDLXXII

473

CDLXXIII

474

CDLXXIV

475

CDLXXV

476

CDLXXVI

477

CDLXXVII

478

CDLXXVIII

479

CDLXXIX

480

CDLXXX

481

CDLXXXI

482

CDLXXXII

483

CDLXXXIII

484

CDLXXXIV

485

CDLXXXV

486

CDLXXXVI

487

CDLXXXVII

488

CDLXXXVIII

489

CDLXXXIX

490

CDXC

491

CDXCI

492

CDXCII

493

CDXCIII

494

CDXCIV

495

CDXCV

496

CDXCVI

497

CDXCVII

498

CDXCVIII

499

CDXCIX

500

D

501

DI

502

DII

503

DIII

504

DIV

505

DV

506

DVI

507

DVII

508

DVIII

509

DIX

510

DX

511

DXI

512

DXII

513

DXIII

514

DXIV

515

DXV

516

DXVI

517

DXVII

518

DXVIII

519

DXIX

520

DXX

521

DXXI

522

DXXII

523

DXXIII

524

DXXIV

525

DXXV

526

DXXVI

527

DXXVII

528

DXXVIII

529

DXXIX

530

DXXX

531

DXXXI

532

DXXXII

533

DXXXIII

534

DXXXIV

535

DXXXV

536

DXXXVI

537

DXXXVII

538

DXXXVIII

539

DXXXIX

540

DXL

541

DXLI

542

DXLII

543

DXLIII

544

DXLIV

545

DXLV

546

DXLVI

547

DXLVII

548

DXLVIII

549

DXLIX

550

DL

551

DLI

552

DLII

553

DLIII

554

DLIV

555

DLV

556

DLVI

557

DLVII

558

DLVIII

559

DLIX

560

DLX

561

DLXI

562

DLXII

563

DLXIII

564

DLXIV

565

DLXV

566

DLXVI

567

DLXVII

568

DLXVIII

569

DLXIX

570

DLXX

571

DLXXI

572

DLXXII

573

DLXXIII

574

DLXXIV

575

DLXXV

576

DLXXVI

577

DLXXVII

578

DLXXVIII

579

DLXXIX

580

DLXXX

581

DLXXXI

582

DLXXXII

583

DLXXXIII

584

DLXXXIV

585

DLXXXV

586

DLXXXVI

587

DLXXXVII

588

DLXXXVIII

589

DLXXXIX

590

DXC

591

DXCI

592

DXCII

593

DXCIII

594

DXCIV

595

DXCV

596

DXCVI

597

DXCVII

598

DXCVIII

599

DXCIX

600

DC

601

DCI

602

DCII

603

DCIII

604

DCIV

605

DCV

606

DCVI

607

DCVII

608

DCVIII

609

DCIX

610

DCX

611

DCXI

612

DCXII

613

DCXIII

614

DCXIV

615

DCXV

616

DCXVI

617

DCXVII

618

DCXVIII

619

DCXIX

620

DCXX

621

DCXXI

622

DCXXII

623

DCXXIII

624

DCXXIV

625

DCXXV

626

DCXXVI

627

DCXXVII

628

DCXXVIII

629

DCXXIX

630

DCXXX

631

DCXXXI

632

DCXXXII

633

DCXXXIII

634

DCXXXIV

635

DCXXXV

636

DCXXXVI

637

DCXXXVII

638

DCXXXVIII

639

DCXXXIX

640

DCXL

641

DCXLI

642

DCXLII

643

DCXLIII

644

DCXLIV

645

DCXLV

646

DCXLVI

647

DCXLVII

648

DCXLVIII

649

DCXLIX

650

DCL

651

DCLI

652

DCLII

653

DCLIII

654

DCLIV

655

DCLV

656

DCLVI

657

DCLVII

658

DCLVIII

659

DCLIX

660

DCLX

661

DCLXI

662

DCLXII

663

DCLXIII

664

DCLXIV

665

DCLXV

666

DCLXVI

667

DCLXVII

668

DCLXVIII

669

DCLXIX

670

DCLXX

671

DCLXXI

672

DCLXXII

673

DCLXXIII

674

DCLXXIV

675

DCLXXV

676

DCLXXVI

677

DCLXXVII

678

DCLXXVIII

679

DCLXXIX

680

DCLXXX

681

DCLXXXI

682

DCLXXXII

683

DCLXXXIII

684

DCLXXXIV

685

DCLXXXV

686

DCLXXXVI

687

DCLXXXVII

688

DCLXXXVIII

689

DCLXXXIX

690

DCXC

691

DCXCI

692

DCXCII

693

DCXCIII

694

DCXCIV

695

DCXCV

696

DCXCVI

697

DCXCVII

698

DCXCVIII

699

DCXCIX

700

DCC

701

DCCI

702

DCCII

703

DCCIII

704

DCCIV

705

DCCV

706

DCCVI

707

DCCVII

708

DCCVIII

709

DCCIX

710

DCCX

711

DCCXI

712

DCCXII

713

DCCXIII

714

DCCXIV

715

DCCXV

716

DCCXVI

717

DCCXVII

718

DCCXVIII

719

DCCXIX

720

DCCXX

721

DCCXXI

722

DCCXXII

723

DCCXXIII

724

DCCXXIV

725

DCCXXV

726

DCCXXVI

727

DCCXXVII

728

DCCXXVIII

729

DCCXXIX

730

DCCXXX

731

DCCXXXI

732

DCCXXXII

733

DCCXXXIII

734

DCCXXXIV

735

DCCXXXV

736

DCCXXXVI

737

DCCXXXVII

738

DCCXXXVIII

739

DCCXXXIX

740

DCCXL

741

DCCXLI

742

DCCXLII

743

DCCXLIII

744

DCCXLIV

745

DCCXLV

746

DCCXLVI

747

DCCXLVII

748

DCCXLVIII

749

DCCXLIX

750

DCCL

751

DCCLI

752

DCCLII

753

DCCLIII

754

DCCLIV

755

DCCLV

756

DCCLVI

757

DCCLVII

758

DCCLVIII

759

DCCLIX

760

DCCLX

761

DCCLXI

762

DCCLXII

763

DCCLXIII

764

DCCLXIV

765

DCCLXV

766

DCCLXVI

767

DCCLXVII

768

DCCLXVIII

769

DCCLXIX

770

DCCLXX

771

DCCLXXI

772

DCCLXXII

773

DCCLXXIII

774

DCCLXXIV

775

DCCLXXV

776

DCCLXXVI

777

DCCLXXVII

778

DCCLXXVIII

779

DCCLXXIX

780

DCCLXXX

781

DCCLXXXI

782

DCCLXXXII

783

DCCLXXXIII

784

DCCLXXXIV

785

DCCLXXXV

786

DCCLXXXVI

787

DCCLXXXVII

788

DCCLXXXVIII

789

DCCLXXXIX

790

DCCXC

791

DCCXCI

792

DCCXCII

793

DCCXCIII

794

DCCXCIV

795

DCCXCV

796

DCCXCVI

797

DCCXCVII

798

DCCXCVIII

799

DCCXCIX

800

DCCC

801

DCCCI

802

DCCCII

803

DCCCIII

804

DCCCIV

805

DCCCV

806

DCCCVI

807

DCCCVII

808

DCCCVIII

809

DCCCIX

810

DCCCX

811

DCCCXI

812

DCCCXII

813

DCCCXIII

814

DCCCXIV

815

DCCCXV

816

DCCCXVI

817

DCCCXVII

818

DCCCXVIII

819

DCCCXIX

820

DCCCXX

821

DCCCXXI

822

DCCCXXII

823

DCCCXXIII

824

DCCCXXIV

825

DCCCXXV

826

DCCCXXVI

827

DCCCXXVII

828

DCCCXXVIII

829

DCCCXXIX

830

DCCCXXX

831

DCCCXXXI

832

DCCCXXXII

833

DCCCXXXIII

834

DCCCXXXIV

835

DCCCXXXV

836

DCCCXXXVI

837

DCCCXXXVII

838

DCCCXXXVIII

839

DCCCXXXIX

840

DCCCXL

841

DCCCXLI

842

DCCCXLII

843

DCCCXLIII

844

DCCCXLIV

845

DCCCXLV

846

DCCCXLVI

847

DCCCXLVII

848

DCCCXLVIII

849

DCCCXLIX

850

DCCCL

851

DCCCLI

852

DCCCLII

853

DCCCLIII

854

DCCCLIV

855

DCCCLV

856

DCCCLVI

857

DCCCLVII

858

DCCCLVIII

859

DCCCLIX

860

DCCCLX

861

DCCCLXI

862

DCCCLXII

863

DCCCLXIII

864

DCCCLXIV

865

DCCCLXV

866

DCCCLXVI

867

DCCCLXVII

868

DCCCLXVIII

869

DCCCLXIX

870

DCCCLXX

871

DCCCLXXI

872

DCCCLXXII

873

DCCCLXXIII

874

DCCCLXXIV

875

DCCCLXXV

876

DCCCLXXVI

877

DCCCLXXVII

878

DCCCLXXVIII

879

DCCCLXXIX

880

DCCCLXXX

881

DCCCLXXXI

882

DCCCLXXXII

883

DCCCLXXXIII

884

DCCCLXXXIV

885

DCCCLXXXV

886

DCCCLXXXVI

887

DCCCLXXXVII

888

DCCCLXXXVIII

889

DCCCLXXXIX

890

DCCCXC

891

DCCCXCI

892

DCCCXCII

893

DCCCXCIII

894

DCCCXCIV

895

DCCCXCV

896

DCCCXCVI

897

DCCCXCVII

898

DCCCXCVIII

899

DCCCXCIX

900

CM

901

CMI

902

CMII

903

CMIII

904

CMIV

905

CMV

906

CMVI

907

CMVII

908

CMVIII

909

CMIX

910

CMX

911

CMXI

912

CMXII

913

CMXIII

914

CMXIV

915

CMXV

916

CMXVI

917

CMXVII

918

CMXVIII

919

CMXIX

920

CMXX

921

CMXXI

922

CMXXII

923

CMXXIII

924

CMXXIV

925

CMXXV

926

CMXXVI

927

CMXXVII

928

CMXXVIII

929

CMXXIX

930

CMXXX

931

CMXXXI

932

CMXXXII

933

CMXXXIII

934

CMXXXIV

935

CMXXXV

936

CMXXXVI

937

CMXXXVII

938

CMXXXVIII

939

CMXXXIX

940

CMXL

941

CMXLI

942

CMXLII

943

CMXLIII

944

CMXLIV

945

CMXLV

946

CMXLVI

947

CMXLVII

948

CMXLVIII

949

CMXLIX

950

CML

951

CMLI

952

CMLII

953

CMLIII

954

CMLIV

955

CMLV

956

CMLVI

957

CMLVII

958

CMLVIII

959

CMLIX

960

CMLX

961

CMLXI

962

CMLXII

963

CMLXIII

964

CMLXIV

965

CMLXV

966

CMLXVI

967

CMLXVII

968

CMLXVIII

969

CMLXIX

970

CMLXX

971

CMLXXI

972

CMLXXII

973

CMLXXIII

974

CMLXXIV

975

CMLXXV

976

CMLXXVI

977

CMLXXVII

978

CMLXXVIII

979

CMLXXIX

980

CMLXXX

981

CMLXXXI

982

CMLXXXII

983

CMLXXXIII

984

CMLXXXIV

985

CMLXXXV

986

CMLXXXVI

987

CMLXXXVII

988

CMLXXXVIII

989

CMLXXXIX

990

CMXC

991

CMXCI

992

CMXCII

993

CMXCIII

994

CMXCIV

995

CMXCV

996

CMXCVI

997

CMXCVII

998

CMXCVIII

999

CMXCIX

1000

M

* Римские цифры — это натуральные числа, записанные при помощи повторения 7 латинских букв, в определённой прописанной правилами последовательности: I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), M (1000).

Roman numerals on stern of the ship Cutty Sark showing draught in feet. The numbers range from 13 to 22, from bottom to top.

Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers are written with combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, each letter with a fixed integer value, modern style uses only these seven:

I V X L C D M
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some applications to this day.

One place they are often seen is on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:

I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII

The notations IV and IX can be read as «one less than five» (4) and «one less than ten» (9), although there is a tradition favouring representation of «4» as «IIII» on Roman numeral clocks.[1]

Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and television programs. MCM, signifying «a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand», means 1900, so 1912 is written MCMXII. For the years of this century, MM indicates 2000. The current year is MMXXIII (2023).

Description

Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten and no zero symbol, in contrast with the place value notation of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten).

This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. Even the post-renaissance restoration of a largely «classical» notation has failed to produce total consistency: variant forms are even defended by some modern writers as offering improved «flexibility».[2] On the other hand, especially where a Roman numeral is considered a legally binding expression of a number, as in U.S. Copyright law (where an «incorrect» or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim, or affect the termination date of the copyright period)[3] it is desirable to strictly follow the usual style described below.

Standard form

The following table displays how Roman numerals are usually written:[4]

Individual decimal places

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units
1 M C X I
2 MM CC XX II
3 MMM CCC XXX III
4 CD XL IV
5 D L V
6 DC LX VI
7 DCC LXX VII
8 DCCC LXXX VIII
9 CM XC IX

The numerals for 4 (IV) and 9 (IX) are written using «subtractive notation»,[5] where the first symbol (I) is subtracted from the larger one (V, or X), thus avoiding the clumsier IIII and VIIII.[a] Subtractive notation is also used for 40 (XL), 90 (XC), 400 (CD) and 900 (CM).[6] These are the only subtractive forms in standard use.

A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:

  •    39 = XXX + IX = XXXIX.
  •   246 = CC + XL + VI = CCXLVI.
  •   789 = DCC + LXXX + IX = DCCLXXXIX.
  • 2,421 = MM + CD + XX + I = MMCDXXI.

Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech:

  •   160 = C + LX = CLX
  •   207 = CC + VII = CCVII
  • 1,009 = M + IX = MIX
  • 1,066 = M + LX + VI = MLXVI[7][8]

In practice, Roman numerals for numbers over 1000 [b] are currently used mainly for year numbers, as in these examples:

  • 1776 = M + DCC + LXX + VI = MDCCLXXVI (the date written on the book held by the Statue of Liberty).
  • 1918 = M + CM + X + VIII = MCMXVIII (the first year of the Spanish flu pandemic)
  • 1954 = M + CM + L + IV = MCMLIV (as in the trailer for the movie The Last Time I Saw Paris)[3]
  • 2014 = MM + X + IV = MMXIV (the year of the games of the XXII (22nd) Olympic Winter Games (in Sochi, Russia))

The largest number that can be represented in this notation is 3,999 (MMMCMXCIX), but since the largest Roman numeral likely to be required today is MMXXIII (the current year) there is no practical need for larger Roman numerals. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, ancient and medieval users of the system used various means to write larger numbers; see large numbers below.

Other forms

Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general standard represented above.

Other additive forms

While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (IV, XL and CD) has been the usual form since Roman times, additive notation to represent these numbers (IIII, XXXX and CCCC)[9] continued to be used, including in compound numbers like XXIIII,[10] LXXIIII,[11] and CCCCLXXXX.[12] The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (VIIII,[9] LXXXX,[13] and DCCCC[14]) have also been used, although less often.

The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to the Colosseum, IIII is systematically used instead of IV, but subtractive notation is used for XL; consequently, gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.[15][16]

Modern clock faces that use Roman numerals still very often use IIII for four o’clock but IX for nine o’clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century.[17][18][19] However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster tower (commonly known as Big Ben) uses a subtractive IV for 4 o’clock.[18]

Isaac Asimov once mentioned an «interesting theory» that Romans avoided using IV because it was the initial letters of IVPITER, the Latin spelling of Jupiter, and might have seemed impious.[20] He did not say whose theory it was.

The year number on Admiralty Arch, London. The year 1910 is rendered as

MDCCCCX, rather than the more usual

MCMX

Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for «1900» (usually written MCM). These vary from MDCCCCX for 1910 as seen on Admiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not unique MDCDIII for 1903, on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum.[21]

Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions 5 and 50 have been occasionally written IIIII and XXXXX instead of V and L, and there are instances such as IIIIII and XXXXXX rather than VI or LX.[22][23]

Other subtractive forms

There is a common belief that any smaller digit placed to the left of a larger digit is subtracted from the total, and that by clever choices a long Roman numeral can be «compressed». The best known example of this is the ROMAN() function in Microsoft Excel, which can turn 499 into CDXCIX, LDVLIV, XDIX, VDIV, or ID depending on the «Form» setting.[24] There is no indication this is anything other than an invention by the programmer, and the universal-subtraction belief may be a result of modern users trying to rationalize the syntax of Roman numerals.

Epitaph of centurion Marcus Caelius, showing «

XIIX«

There is, however, some historic use of subtractive notation other than that described in the above «standard»: in particular IIIXX for 17,[25] IIXX for 18,[26] IIIC for 97,[27] IIC for 98,[28][29] and IC for 99.[30] A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is duodeviginti, literally «two from twenty», 98 is duodecentum (two from hundred), and 99 is undecentum (one from hundred).[31] However, the explanation does not seem to apply to IIIXX and IIIC, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were septendecim (seven ten) and nonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively.

There are multiple examples of IIX being used for 8. There does not seem to be a linguistic explanation for this use, although it is one stroke shorter than VIII. XIIX was used by officers of the XVIII Roman Legion to write their number.[32][33] The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurion Marcus Caelius (c. 45 BC – 9 AD). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as Fasti, XIIX is used for the 18 days to the next Kalends, and XXIIX for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores.[34]

Rare variants

While irregular subtractive and additive notation has been used at least occasionally throughout history, some Roman numerals have been observed in documents and inscriptions that do not fit either system. Some of these variants do not seem to have been used outside specific contexts, and may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries.

Padlock used on the north gate of the Irish town of Athlone. «1613» in the date is rendered

XVIXIII, (literally «16, 13») instead of

MDCXIII.

  • IIXX was how people associated with the XXII Roman Legion used to write their number. The practice may have been due to a common way to say «twenty-second» in Latin, namely duo et vice(n)sima (literally «two and twentieth») rather than the «regular» vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second).[35] Apparently, at least one ancient stonecutter mistakenly thought that the IIXX of «22nd Legion» stood for 18, and «corrected» it to XVIII.[35]

  • There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e.g. 1613 as XVIXIII, corresponding to the common reading «sixteen thirteen» of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as XVCXIX as in French quinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.[37]
  • In some French texts from the 15th century and later one finds constructions like IIIIXXXIX for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen).[37] Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as «iiixxxvii» (which could be read «three-score and seventeen»).[38]
  • A medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as «XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII«, that is, «13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13».[39]
  • Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns – such as VXL for 45, instead of the usual XLV — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer’s lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage.

Non-numeric combinations

As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, «XXX» and «XL» have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while «IXL» more often than not is a gramogram of «I excel», and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral.[40]

Zero

As a non-positional numeral system, Roman numerals have no «place-keeping» zeros. Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the number zero itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1). The word nulla (the Latin word meaning «none») was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance Dionysius Exiguus used nulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD.[41][42] About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for «nothing») for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.[43]

The use of N to indicate «none» long survived in the historic apothecaries’ system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.[44]

Fractions

A triens coin (13 or

412 of an as). Note the four dots (····) indicating its value.

A semis coin (

12 or

612 of an as). Note the

S indicating its value.

The base «Roman fraction» is S, indicating 12.
The use of S (as in VIIS to indicate 712) is attested in some ancient inscriptions[45]
and also in the now rare apothecaries’ system (usually in the form SS):[44] but while Roman numerals for whole numbers are essentially decimal S does not correspond to 510, as one might expect, but 612.

The Romans used a duodecimal rather than a decimal system for fractions, as the divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 13 and 14 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5). Notation for fractions other than 12 is mainly found on surviving Roman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as. Fractions less than 12 are indicated by a dot (·) for each uncia «twelfth», the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), is S for semis «half». Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine.[46] The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots arranged like () (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.

Each fraction from 112 to 1212 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:

Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning
112 · Uncia, unciae «Ounce»
212 = 16 ·· or : Sextans, sextantis «Sixth»
312 = 14 ··· or Quadrans, quadrantis «Quarter»
412 = 13 ···· or Triens, trientis «Third»
512 ····· or Quincunx, quincuncis «Five-ounce» (quinque unciaequincunx)
612 = 12 S Semis, semissis «Half»
712 S· Septunx, septuncis «Seven-ounce» (septem unciaeseptunx)
812 = 23 S·· or S: Bes, bessis «Twice» (as in «twice a third»)
912 = 34 S··· or S Dodrans, dodrantis
or nonuncium, nonuncii
«Less a quarter» (de-quadransdodrans)
or «ninth ounce» (nona uncianonuncium)
1012 = 56 S···· or S Dextans, dextantis
or decunx, decuncis
«Less a sixth» (de-sextansdextans)
or «ten ounces» (decem unciaedecunx)
1112 S····· or S Deunx, deuncis «Less an ounce» (de-unciadeunx)
1212 = 1 I As, assis «Unit»

Other Roman fractional notations included the following:

Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning
11728=12−3 𐆕 Siliqua, siliquae
1288 Scripulum, scripuli «scruple»
1144=12−2 𐆔 Dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae «half a sextula»
172 𐆓 Sextula, sextulae «16 of an uncia»
148 Sicilicus, sicilici
136 𐆓𐆓 Binae sextulae, binarum sextularum «two sextulas» (duella, duellae)
124 Σ or 𐆒 or Є Semuncia, semunciae «12 uncia» (semi- + uncia)
18 Σ· or 𐆒· or Є· Sescuncia, sescunciae «1+12 uncias» (sesqui- + uncia)

Large numbers

During the centuries that Roman numerals remained the standard way of writing numbers throughout Europe, there were various extensions to the system designed to indicate larger numbers, none of which were ever standardised.

Apostrophus

«1630» on the Westerkerk in Amsterdam. «

M» and «

D» are given archaic «apostrophus» form.

One of these was the apostrophus,[47] in which 500 was written as IↃ, while 1,000 was written as CIↃ.[20] This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Cs and s as parentheses), which has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage.

Each additional set of C and surrounding CIↃ raises the value by a factor of ten: CCIↃↃ represents 10,000 and CCCIↃↃↃ represents 100,000. Similarly, each additional to the right of IↃ raises the value by a factor of ten: IↃↃ represents 5,000 and IↃↃↃ represents 50,000. Numerals larger than CCCIↃↃↃ do not occur.[48]

Page from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture of apostrophus and vinculum numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000).

Sometimes CIↃ was reduced to for 1,000. Similarly, IↃↃ for 5,000 was reduced to ; CCIↃↃ for 10,000 to ; IↃↃↃ for 50,000 to (ↇ); and CCCIↃↃↃ (ↈ) for 100,000 to .
[49]

IↃ and CIↃ most likely preceded, and subsequently influenced, the adoption of «D» and «M» in Roman numerals.

John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity ⟨∞⟩, and one conjecture is that he based it on , since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers.

Vinculum

Another system was the vinculum, in which conventional Roman numerals were multiplied by 1,000 by adding a «bar» or «overline».[49] It was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era: both systems were in simultaneous use around the Roman world (M for ‘1000’ was not in use until the Medieval period).[50]
[51]
The use of vinculum for multiples of 1,000 can be observed, for example, on the milestones erected by Roman soldiers along the Antonine Wall in the mid-2nd century AD.[52] The vinculum for marking 1,000s continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly as titulus.[53]

Some modern sources describe the vinculum as if it were a part of the current «standard».[54] However, this is purely hypothetical, since no common modern usage requires numbers larger than the current year (MMXXIII). Nonetheless, here are some examples, to give an idea of how it might be used:

  • IV = 4,000
  • IVDCXXVII = 4,627
  • XXV = 25,000
  • XXVCDLIX = 25,459

Use of Roman numeral «

I» (with exaggerated serifs) contrasting with the upper case letter «I».

This use of lines is distinct from the custom, once very common, of adding both underline and overline (or very large serifs) to a Roman numeral, simply to make it clear that it is a number, e.g.
Roman numerals drawn with connecting lines for 1967. There is some scope for confusion when an overline is meant to denote multiples of 1,000, and when not. The Greeks and Romans often overlined letters acting as numerals to highlight them from the general body of the text, without any numerical significance. This stylistic convention was, for example, also in use in the inscriptions of the Antonine Wall,[55] and the reader is required to decipher the intended meaning of the overline from the context.

Another medieval usage was the addition of vertical lines (or brackets) before and after the numeral to multiply it by 10:[citation needed] thus M for 10,000 as an alternative form for X. In combination with the overline the bracketed forms might be used to raise the multiplier to ten thousand, thus:

  • VIII for 80,000
  • XX for 200,000

This same syntax may also have indicated multiplication by 100[citation needed] so the above two examples are 800,000 and 2,000,000.

Origin

The system is closely associated with the ancient city-state of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural.

Etruscan numerals

Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC. At the time, the region was inhabited by diverse populations of which the Etruscans were the most advanced. The ancient Romans themselves admitted that the basis of much of their civilization was Etruscan. Rome itself was located next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy.

The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌡⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)[56]

The symbols ⟨𐌠⟩ and ⟨𐌡⟩ resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as 𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, 𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers («three from twenty», etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However, they did not write 𐌠𐌡 for 4 (nor 𐌢𐌣 for 40), and wrote 𐌡𐌠𐌠, 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠 and 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠 for 7, 8, and 9, respectively.[56]

Early Roman numerals

The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩. The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from ⟨𐌡⟩ and ⟨𐌣⟩ to ⟨V⟩ and ⟨ↆ⟩ at some point. The latter had flattened to ⟨⊥⟩ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter ⟨L⟩.[48]

The symbol for 100 was written variously as ⟨𐌟⟩ or ⟨ↃIC⟩, and was then abbreviated to ⟨⟩ or ⟨C⟩, with ⟨C⟩ (which matched the Latin letter C) finally winning out. It might have helped that C was the initial letter of CENTUM, Latin for «hundred».

The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted by V or X overlaid with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a superimposed on a Þ. It became D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter D. It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for «thousand» was a CIↃ, and half of a thousand or «five hundred» is the right half of the symbol, IↃ, and this may have been converted into D.[20]

The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxed X: Ⓧ, , , and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi. Over time, the symbol changed to Ψ and . The latter symbol further evolved into , then , and eventually changed to M under the influence of the Latin word mille «thousand».[48]

According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols were I, X, C and Φ (or ) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (half an X is V, half a C is L and half a Φ/⊕ is D).[57]

Entrance to section

LII (52) of the Colosseum, with numerals still visible

Classical Roman numerals

The Colosseum was constructed in Rome in CE 72–80,[58] and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances from XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive,[59] to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical form: as largely standardised in current use. The most obvious anomaly (a common one that persisted for centuries) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation — while XL is used for 40, IV is avoided in favour of IIII: in fact gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.

Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Lower case, or minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so on.

13th century example of

iiij.

Since the Middle Ages, a «j» has sometimes been substituted for the final «i» of a «lower-case» Roman numeral, such as «iij» for 3 or «vij» for 7. This «j» can be considered a swash variant of «i«. Into the early 20th century, the use of a final «j» was still sometimes used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written.[60]

Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called «medieval Roman numerals». Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as «A» for «V«, or «Q» for «D«), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals («O» for «XI«, or «F» for «XL«). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.[61]

Number Medieval
abbreviation
Notes and etymology
5 A Resembles an upside-down V. Also said to equal 500.
6 Either from a ligature of VI, or from digamma (ϛ), the Greek numeral 6 (sometimes conflated with the στ ligature).[48]
7 S, Z Presumed abbreviation of septem, Latin for 7.
9.5 Scribal abbreviation, an x with a slash through it. Likewise, IX̷ represented 8.5
11 O Presumed abbreviation of onze, French for 11.
40 F Presumed abbreviation of English forty.
70 S Also could stand for 7, with the same derivation.
80 R
90 N Presumed abbreviation of nonaginta, Latin for 90. (Ambiguous with N for «nothing» (nihil)).
150 Y Possibly derived from the lowercase y’s shape.
151 K Unusual, origin unknown; also said to stand for 250.[62]
160 T Possibly derived from Greek tetra, as 4 × 40 = 160.
200 H Could also stand for 2 (see also 𐆙, the symbol for the dupondius). From a barring of two I‘s.
250 E
300 B
400 P, G
500 Q Redundant with D; abbreviates quingenti, Latin for 500. Also sometimes used for 500,000.[63]
800 Ω Borrowed from Gothic.
900 ϡ Borrowed from Gothic.
2000 Z

Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year.

Modern use

By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient «Arabic» equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are:

Spanish Real using

IIII instead of

IV as regnal number of Charles

IV of Spain.

  • Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI. These are referred to as regnal numbers and are usually read as ordinals; e.g. II is pronounced «the second». This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages, gaining widespread use in England during the reign of Henry VIII. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as Edward the Confessor. Some monarchs (e.g. Charles IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France) seem to have preferred the use of IIII instead of IV on their coinage (see illustration).
  • Generational suffixes, particularly in the U.S., for people sharing the same name across generations, for example William Howard Taft IV. These are also usually read as ordinals.
  • In the French Republican Calendar, initiated during the French Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year XIV (1805) when it was abandoned.
  • The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals.

The year of construction of the Cambridge Public Library, (USA) 1888, displayed in «standard» Roman numerals on its facade.

  • Hour marks on timepieces. In this context, 4 is often written IIII.
  • The year of construction on building façades and cornerstones.
  • Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of appendices and annexes, too.
  • Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e.g. Act iii, Scene 2).
  • Sequels to some films, video games, and other works (as in Rocky II, Grand Theft Auto V).
  • Outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships.
  • Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance:
    • The Summer and Winter Olympic Games (e.g. the XXI Olympic Winter Games; the Games of the XXX Olympiad).
    • The Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (e.g. Super Bowl XLII; Super Bowl 50 was a one-time exception[64]).
    • WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE (e.g. WrestleMania XXX). This usage has also been inconsistent.

Specific disciplines

In astronautics, United States rocket model variants are sometimes designated by Roman numerals, e.g. Titan I, Titan II, Titan III, Saturn I, Saturn V.

In astronomy, the natural satellites or «moons» of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet’s name. For example, Titan’s designation is Saturn VI.

In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table. They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice.

In education, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, «grade IX» is sometimes seen for «grade 9».

In entomology, the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals.

In graphic design stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values.

In law, Roman numerals are commonly used to help organize legal codes as part of an alphanumeric outline.

In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.

In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.

In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:

  • Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals.
  • In Roman Numeral Analysis, harmonic function is identified using Roman Numerals.
  • Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings.

In pharmacy, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsolete apothecaries’ system of measurement: including SS to denote «one half» and N to denote «zero».[44][65]

In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System.

In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes.

In sport the team containing the «top» players and representing a nation or province, a club or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often called the «1st XV«, while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team might be the «3rd XI«.

In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana.

In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX, as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for «seventy»).

Modern use in European languages other than English

Some uses that are rare or never seen in English speaking countries may be relatively common in parts of continental Europe and in other regions (e.g. Latin America) that use a European language other than English. For instance:

Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French XVIIIe siècle[66] and the Spanish siglo XVIII mean «18th century». Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favor Roman numerals (xviii век). On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes «18.» (with a period) before the local word for «century».

Boris Yeltsin’s signature, dated 10 November 1988, rendered as 10.

XI.’88.

Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: «4.VI.1789″ and «VI.4.1789″ both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789.

Business hours table on a shop window in Vilnius, Lithuania.

Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[67] and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by I. Sunday is represented by VII. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time.

Sign at 17.9 km on route SS4 Salaria, north of Rome, Italy.

Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering.[68][69] For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-III, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as 138-huis.

In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals. The sign IX/17 thus marks 17.9 km.

Certain romance-speaking countries use Roman numerals to designate assemblies of their national legislatures. For instance, the composition of the Italian Parliament from 2018 to 2022 (elected in the 2018 Italian general election) is called the XVIII Legislature of the Italian Republic (or more commonly the «XVIII Legislature»).

A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.

Unicode

The «Number Forms» block of the Unicode computer character set standard has a number of Roman numeral symbols in the range of code points from U+2160 to U+2188.[70] This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12 (Ⅻ or XII). One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that «[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters».[71]
The block also includes some apostrophus symbols for large numbers, an old variant of «L» (50) similar to the Etruscan character, the Claudian letter «reversed C», etc.

Symbol
Value 1,000 5,000 10,000 6 50 50,000 100,000

See also

  • Biquinary
  • Egyptian numerals
  • Etruscan numerals
  • Greek numerals
  • Hebrew numerals
  • Kharosthi numerals
  • Maya numerals
  • Roman abacus
  • Proto-writing
  • Roman numerals in Unicode

References

Notes

  1. ^ Without theorising about causation, it may be noted that IV and IX not only have fewer characters than IIII and VIIII, but are less likely to be confused (especially at a quick glance) with III and VIII.
  2. ^ For numbers over 3,999 see large numbers

Citations

  1. ^ Judkins, Maura (4 November 2011). «Public clocks do a number on Roman numerals». The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 August 2019. Most clocks using Roman numerals traditionally use IIII instead of IV… One of the rare prominent clocks that uses the IV instead of IIII is Big Ben in London.
  2. ^ Adams, Cecil (23 February 1990). «What is the proper way to style Roman numerals for the 1990s?». The Straight Dope.
  3. ^ a b Hayes, David P. «Guide to Roman Numerals». Copyright Registration and Renewal Information Chart and Web Site.
  4. ^ Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). «1 (Working with Arabic and Roman numerals)». Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians. CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-203-49534-6. Table 1-1 Roman and Arabic numerals (table very similar to the table here, apart from inclusion of Vinculum notation.
  5. ^ Stanislas Dehaene (1997): The Number Sense : How the Mind Creates Mathematics. Oxford University Press; 288 pages. ISBN 9780199723096
  6. ^ Ûrij Vasilʹevič Prokhorov and Michiel Hazewinkel, editors (1990): Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Volume 10, page 502. Springer; 546 pages. ISBN 9781556080050
  7. ^ Dela Cruz, M. L. P.; Torres, H. D. (2009). Number Smart Quest for Mastery: Teacher’s Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc. ISBN 9789712352164.
  8. ^ Martelli, Alex; Ascher, David (2002). Python Cookbook. O’Reilly Media Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-00167-4.
  9. ^ a b Julius Caesar (52–49 BC): Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Book II, Section 4: «… XV milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; …» Section 8: «… ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et ad extremas fossas castella constituit…» Book IV, Section 15: «Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt.» Book VII, Section 4: «…in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte.»
  10. ^ Angelo Rocca (1612) De campanis commentarius. Published by Guillelmo Faciotti, Rome. Title of a Plate: «Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata» («Bell to be sounded by 24 men»).
  11. ^ Gerard Ter Borch (1673): Portrait of Cornelis de Graef. Date on painting: «Out. XXIIII Jaer. // M. DC. LXXIIII».
  12. ^ Pliny the Elder (77–79 AD): Naturalis Historia, Book III: «Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbem CCLXXXXVII p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader … ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, per CCCCL p. fluens …» Book IV: «Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII.» Book VI: «tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur.»
  13. ^ Thomas Bennet (1731): Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum … Editio tertia. Published by T. Astley, copy in the British Library; 149 pages. Page 24: «PRÆFIXA duo sunt viz. He emphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap VI Reg. LXXXX.) & Shin cum Segal sequente Dagesh, quod denotat pronomen relativum…»
  14. ^ Pico Della Mirandola (1486) Conclusiones sive Theses DCCCC («Conclusions, or 900 Theses»).
  15. ^ «360:12 tables, 24 chairs, and plenty of chalk». Roman Numerals…not quite so simple. 2 January 2011.
  16. ^ «Paul Lewis». Roman Numerals…How they work. 13 November 2021.
  17. ^ Milham, W.I. (1947). Time & Timekeepers. New York: Macmillan. p. 196.
  18. ^ a b Pickover, Clifford A. (2003). Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in Mathematics, Mind, and Meaning. Oxford University Press. p. 282. ISBN 978-0-19-534800-2.
  19. ^ Adams, Cecil; Zotti, Ed (1988). More of the straight dope. Ballantine Books. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-345-35145-6.
  20. ^ a b c Asimov, Isaac (1966). Asimov on Numbers (PDF). Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 12.
  21. ^ «Gallery: Museum’s North Entrance (1910)». Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2014. The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: «Dedicated to Art and Free to All MDCDIII.» These roman numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was part of the original building designed for the 1904 World’s Fair.
  22. ^ Reynolds, Joyce Maire; Spawforth, Anthony J. S. (1996). «numbers, Roman». In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866172-X.
  23. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1923). The Revised Latin Primer. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
  24. ^ «ROMAN function». support.microsoft.com.
  25. ^ Michaele Gasp. Lvndorphio (1621): Acta publica inter invictissimos gloriosissimosque&c. … et Ferdinandum II. Romanorum Imperatores…. Printed by Ian-Friderici Weissii. Page 123: «Sub Dato Pragæ IIIXX Decemb. A. C. M. DC. IIXX». Page 126, end of the same document: «Dabantur Pragæ 17 Decemb. M. DC. IIXX».
  26. ^ Raphael Sulpicius à Munscrod (1621): Vera Ac Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm. Page 16, line 1: «repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX». Page 41, upper right corner: «Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX». Page 42, upper left corner: «Febr. A. C. MDC.XIX». Page 70: «IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata….». Page 71: «XIX. Maij».
  27. ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1699): Als Ihre Königl. Majestät in Pohlen und …. Page 39: «… und der Umschrifft: LITHUANIA ASSERTA M. DC. IIIC [1699].»
  28. ^ Joh. Caspar Posner (1698): Mvndvs ante mvndvm sive De Chao Orbis Primordio, title page: «Ad diem jvlii A. O. R. M DC IIC».
  29. ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1700): Saxonia Nvmismatica: Das ist: Die Historie Des Durchlauchtigsten…. Page 26: «Die Revers hat eine feine Inscription: SERENISSIMO DN.DN… SENATUS.QVERNF. A. M DC IIC D. 18 OCT [year 1698 day 18 oct].»
  30. ^ Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1698): Opera Geographica et Historica. Helmstadt, J. M. Sustermann. Title page of first edition: «Bibliopolæ ibid. M DC IC».
  31. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin H. (1879). Latin grammar. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 150. ISBN 9781177808293.
  32. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004). Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2 ed.). p. 270. ISBN 0-8160-5026-0.
  33. ^ Boyne, William (1968). A manual of Roman coins. p. 13.
  34. ^ Degrassi, Atilius, ed. (1963). Inscriptiones Italiae. Vol. 13: Fasti et Elogia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato. Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani.
  35. ^ a b Stephen James Malone, (2005) Legio XX Valeria Victrix…. PhD thesis. On page 396 it discusses many coins with «Leg. IIXX» and notes that it must be Legion 22. The footnote on that page says: «The form IIXX clearly reflecting the Latin duo et vicensima ‘twenty-second’: cf. X5398, legatus I[eg II] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g; VI 1551, legatus leg] IIXX Prj; III 14207.7, miles leg IIXX; and III 10471-3, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including ‘XVIII PR’ – surely here the stonecutter’s hypercorrection for IIXX PR.
  36. ^ L’ Atre périlleux et Yvain, le chevalier au lion . 1301–1350.
  37. ^ a b M. Gachard (1862): «II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (nos CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)». Bulletin de la Commission royale d’Historie, volume 3, pages 345–554. Page 347: Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins…, quote: «Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIIIme de febvrier, l’an IIIIXXXIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99].» Page 356: Lettre de l’achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant…, quote: «… Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno XVcXIX [1519].» Page 374: Letters patentes de la rémission … de la ville de Bruxelles, quote: «… Op heden, tweentwintich [‘twenty-two’] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich [‘fifteen hundred thirty-two’] … Gegeven op ten vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven.» Page 419: Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation…, quote»: «Faiet le XVme de juillet XVc huytante-six [1586].» doi:10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033.
  38. ^ Herbert Edward Salter (1923) Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521 Oxford Historical Society, volume 76; 544 pages. Page 184 has the computation in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:iii:iiii + xxi:viii:viii + xlv:xiiii:i = iiixxxvii:vi:i, i.e. 10:3:4 + 21:8:8 + 45:14:1 = 77:6:1.
  39. ^ Johannis de Sancto Justo (1301): «E Duo Codicibus Ceratis» («From Two Texts in Wax»). In de Wailly, Delisle (1865): Contenant la deuxieme livraison des monumens des regnes de saint Louis,… Volume 22 of Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Page 530: «SUMMA totalis, XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII. l. III s. XI d. [Sum total, 13 thousand 5 hundred 3 score 13 livres, 3 sous, 11 deniers].
  40. ^ «Our Brand Story». SPC Ardmona. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  41. ^ Faith Wallis, trans. Bede: The Reckoning of Time (725), Liverpool, Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004. ISBN 0-85323-693-3.
  42. ^ Byrhtferth’s Enchiridion (1016). Edited by Peter S. Baker and Michael Lapidge. Early English Text Society 1995. ISBN 978-0-19-722416-8.
  43. ^ C. W. Jones, ed., Opera Didascalica, vol. 123C in Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina.
  44. ^ a b c Bachenheimer, Bonnie S. (2010). Manual for Pharmacy Technicians. ISBN 978-1-58528-307-1.
  45. ^ «RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the Sixth Legion». Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
  46. ^ Maher, David W.; Makowski, John F., «Literary Evidence for Roman Arithmetic with Fractions Archived 27 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine», Classical Philology 96 (2011): 376–399.
  47. ^ «Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary».
  48. ^ a b c d Perry, David J. Proposal to Add Additional Ancient Roman Characters to UCS Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  49. ^ a b Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Translated by David Bellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood, Ian Monk. John Wiley & Sons.
  50. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–109. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0.
  51. ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1982). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 0-520-05079-7.
  52. ^ «RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the Twentieth Legion». Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  53. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0.
  54. ^ «What is Vinculum Notation?». Numerals Converter. 4 March 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  55. ^ «RIB 2171. Building Inscription of the Second and Twentieth Legions». Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  56. ^ a b Gilles Van Heems (2009)> «Nombre, chiffre, lettre : Formes et réformes. Des notations chiffrées de l’étrusque» («Between Numbers and Letters: About Etruscan Notations of Numeral Sequences»). Revue de philologie, de littérature et d’histoire anciennes, volume LXXXIII (83), issue 1, pages 103–130. ISSN 0035-1652.
  57. ^ Keyser, Paul (1988). «The Origin of the Latin Numerals 1 to 1000». American Journal of Archaeology. 92 (4): 529–546. doi:10.2307/505248. JSTOR 505248. S2CID 193086234.
  58. ^ Hopkins, Keith (2005). The Colosseum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01895-2.
  59. ^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-288003-1.
  60. ^ Bastedo, Walter A. Materia Medica: Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Prescription Writing for Students and Practitioners, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 1919) p582. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
  61. ^ Capelli, A. Dictionary of Latin Abbreviations. 1912.
  62. ^ Bang, Jørgen. Fremmedordbog, Berlingske Ordbøger, 1962 (Danish)
  63. ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1983). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. University of California Press. p. 44. ISBN 9780520038981. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  64. ^ NFL won’t use Roman numerals for Super Bowl 50 Archived 1 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine, National Football League. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  65. ^ Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-49534-6.
  66. ^ Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l’imprimerie nationale (in French) (6th ed.). Paris: Imprimerie nationale. March 2011. p. 126. ISBN 978-2-7433-0482-9. On composera en chiffres romains petites capitales les nombres concernant : ↲ 1. Les siècles.
  67. ^ Beginners latin Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Government of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  68. ^ Roman Arithmetic Archived 22 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Southwestern Adventist University. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  69. ^ Roman Numerals History Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  70. ^ «Unicode Number Forms» (PDF).
  71. ^ «The Unicode Standard, Version 6.0 – Electronic edition» (PDF). Unicode, Inc. 2011. p. 486.

Sources

  • Menninger, Karl (1992). Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-27096-8.

Further reading

  • Aczel, Amir D. 2015. Finding Zero: A Mathematician’s Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers. 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Goines, David Lance. A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Analysis of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Arabic Numerals. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982.
  • Houston, Stephen D. 2012. The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
  • Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. «Roman numerals and the abacus.» Classica et medievalia 26: 147–60.

External links

  • «Roman Numerals (Totally Epic Guide)». Know The Romans.

Roman numerals on stern of the ship Cutty Sark showing draught in feet. The numbers range from 13 to 22, from bottom to top.

Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers are written with combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, each letter with a fixed integer value, modern style uses only these seven:

I V X L C D M
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some applications to this day.

One place they are often seen is on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:

I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII

The notations IV and IX can be read as «one less than five» (4) and «one less than ten» (9), although there is a tradition favouring representation of «4» as «IIII» on Roman numeral clocks.[1]

Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and television programs. MCM, signifying «a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand», means 1900, so 1912 is written MCMXII. For the years of this century, MM indicates 2000. The current year is MMXXIII (2023).

Description

Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten and no zero symbol, in contrast with the place value notation of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten).

This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. Even the post-renaissance restoration of a largely «classical» notation has failed to produce total consistency: variant forms are even defended by some modern writers as offering improved «flexibility».[2] On the other hand, especially where a Roman numeral is considered a legally binding expression of a number, as in U.S. Copyright law (where an «incorrect» or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim, or affect the termination date of the copyright period)[3] it is desirable to strictly follow the usual style described below.

Standard form

The following table displays how Roman numerals are usually written:[4]

Individual decimal places

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units
1 M C X I
2 MM CC XX II
3 MMM CCC XXX III
4 CD XL IV
5 D L V
6 DC LX VI
7 DCC LXX VII
8 DCCC LXXX VIII
9 CM XC IX

The numerals for 4 (IV) and 9 (IX) are written using «subtractive notation»,[5] where the first symbol (I) is subtracted from the larger one (V, or X), thus avoiding the clumsier IIII and VIIII.[a] Subtractive notation is also used for 40 (XL), 90 (XC), 400 (CD) and 900 (CM).[6] These are the only subtractive forms in standard use.

A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:

  •    39 = XXX + IX = XXXIX.
  •   246 = CC + XL + VI = CCXLVI.
  •   789 = DCC + LXXX + IX = DCCLXXXIX.
  • 2,421 = MM + CD + XX + I = MMCDXXI.

Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech:

  •   160 = C + LX = CLX
  •   207 = CC + VII = CCVII
  • 1,009 = M + IX = MIX
  • 1,066 = M + LX + VI = MLXVI[7][8]

In practice, Roman numerals for numbers over 1000 [b] are currently used mainly for year numbers, as in these examples:

  • 1776 = M + DCC + LXX + VI = MDCCLXXVI (the date written on the book held by the Statue of Liberty).
  • 1918 = M + CM + X + VIII = MCMXVIII (the first year of the Spanish flu pandemic)
  • 1954 = M + CM + L + IV = MCMLIV (as in the trailer for the movie The Last Time I Saw Paris)[3]
  • 2014 = MM + X + IV = MMXIV (the year of the games of the XXII (22nd) Olympic Winter Games (in Sochi, Russia))

The largest number that can be represented in this notation is 3,999 (MMMCMXCIX), but since the largest Roman numeral likely to be required today is MMXXIII (the current year) there is no practical need for larger Roman numerals. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, ancient and medieval users of the system used various means to write larger numbers; see large numbers below.

Other forms

Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general standard represented above.

Other additive forms

While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (IV, XL and CD) has been the usual form since Roman times, additive notation to represent these numbers (IIII, XXXX and CCCC)[9] continued to be used, including in compound numbers like XXIIII,[10] LXXIIII,[11] and CCCCLXXXX.[12] The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (VIIII,[9] LXXXX,[13] and DCCCC[14]) have also been used, although less often.

The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to the Colosseum, IIII is systematically used instead of IV, but subtractive notation is used for XL; consequently, gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.[15][16]

Modern clock faces that use Roman numerals still very often use IIII for four o’clock but IX for nine o’clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century.[17][18][19] However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster tower (commonly known as Big Ben) uses a subtractive IV for 4 o’clock.[18]

Isaac Asimov once mentioned an «interesting theory» that Romans avoided using IV because it was the initial letters of IVPITER, the Latin spelling of Jupiter, and might have seemed impious.[20] He did not say whose theory it was.

The year number on Admiralty Arch, London. The year 1910 is rendered as

MDCCCCX, rather than the more usual

MCMX

Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for «1900» (usually written MCM). These vary from MDCCCCX for 1910 as seen on Admiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not unique MDCDIII for 1903, on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum.[21]

Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions 5 and 50 have been occasionally written IIIII and XXXXX instead of V and L, and there are instances such as IIIIII and XXXXXX rather than VI or LX.[22][23]

Other subtractive forms

There is a common belief that any smaller digit placed to the left of a larger digit is subtracted from the total, and that by clever choices a long Roman numeral can be «compressed». The best known example of this is the ROMAN() function in Microsoft Excel, which can turn 499 into CDXCIX, LDVLIV, XDIX, VDIV, or ID depending on the «Form» setting.[24] There is no indication this is anything other than an invention by the programmer, and the universal-subtraction belief may be a result of modern users trying to rationalize the syntax of Roman numerals.

Epitaph of centurion Marcus Caelius, showing «

XIIX«

There is, however, some historic use of subtractive notation other than that described in the above «standard»: in particular IIIXX for 17,[25] IIXX for 18,[26] IIIC for 97,[27] IIC for 98,[28][29] and IC for 99.[30] A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is duodeviginti, literally «two from twenty», 98 is duodecentum (two from hundred), and 99 is undecentum (one from hundred).[31] However, the explanation does not seem to apply to IIIXX and IIIC, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were septendecim (seven ten) and nonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively.

There are multiple examples of IIX being used for 8. There does not seem to be a linguistic explanation for this use, although it is one stroke shorter than VIII. XIIX was used by officers of the XVIII Roman Legion to write their number.[32][33] The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurion Marcus Caelius (c. 45 BC – 9 AD). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as Fasti, XIIX is used for the 18 days to the next Kalends, and XXIIX for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores.[34]

Rare variants

While irregular subtractive and additive notation has been used at least occasionally throughout history, some Roman numerals have been observed in documents and inscriptions that do not fit either system. Some of these variants do not seem to have been used outside specific contexts, and may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries.

Padlock used on the north gate of the Irish town of Athlone. «1613» in the date is rendered

XVIXIII, (literally «16, 13») instead of

MDCXIII.

  • IIXX was how people associated with the XXII Roman Legion used to write their number. The practice may have been due to a common way to say «twenty-second» in Latin, namely duo et vice(n)sima (literally «two and twentieth») rather than the «regular» vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second).[35] Apparently, at least one ancient stonecutter mistakenly thought that the IIXX of «22nd Legion» stood for 18, and «corrected» it to XVIII.[35]

  • There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e.g. 1613 as XVIXIII, corresponding to the common reading «sixteen thirteen» of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as XVCXIX as in French quinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.[37]
  • In some French texts from the 15th century and later one finds constructions like IIIIXXXIX for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen).[37] Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as «iiixxxvii» (which could be read «three-score and seventeen»).[38]
  • A medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as «XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII«, that is, «13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13».[39]
  • Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns – such as VXL for 45, instead of the usual XLV — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer’s lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage.

Non-numeric combinations

As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, «XXX» and «XL» have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while «IXL» more often than not is a gramogram of «I excel», and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral.[40]

Zero

As a non-positional numeral system, Roman numerals have no «place-keeping» zeros. Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the number zero itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1). The word nulla (the Latin word meaning «none») was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance Dionysius Exiguus used nulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD.[41][42] About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for «nothing») for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.[43]

The use of N to indicate «none» long survived in the historic apothecaries’ system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.[44]

Fractions

A triens coin (13 or

412 of an as). Note the four dots (····) indicating its value.

A semis coin (

12 or

612 of an as). Note the

S indicating its value.

The base «Roman fraction» is S, indicating 12.
The use of S (as in VIIS to indicate 712) is attested in some ancient inscriptions[45]
and also in the now rare apothecaries’ system (usually in the form SS):[44] but while Roman numerals for whole numbers are essentially decimal S does not correspond to 510, as one might expect, but 612.

The Romans used a duodecimal rather than a decimal system for fractions, as the divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 13 and 14 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5). Notation for fractions other than 12 is mainly found on surviving Roman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as. Fractions less than 12 are indicated by a dot (·) for each uncia «twelfth», the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), is S for semis «half». Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine.[46] The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots arranged like () (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.

Each fraction from 112 to 1212 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:

Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning
112 · Uncia, unciae «Ounce»
212 = 16 ·· or : Sextans, sextantis «Sixth»
312 = 14 ··· or Quadrans, quadrantis «Quarter»
412 = 13 ···· or Triens, trientis «Third»
512 ····· or Quincunx, quincuncis «Five-ounce» (quinque unciaequincunx)
612 = 12 S Semis, semissis «Half»
712 S· Septunx, septuncis «Seven-ounce» (septem unciaeseptunx)
812 = 23 S·· or S: Bes, bessis «Twice» (as in «twice a third»)
912 = 34 S··· or S Dodrans, dodrantis
or nonuncium, nonuncii
«Less a quarter» (de-quadransdodrans)
or «ninth ounce» (nona uncianonuncium)
1012 = 56 S···· or S Dextans, dextantis
or decunx, decuncis
«Less a sixth» (de-sextansdextans)
or «ten ounces» (decem unciaedecunx)
1112 S····· or S Deunx, deuncis «Less an ounce» (de-unciadeunx)
1212 = 1 I As, assis «Unit»

Other Roman fractional notations included the following:

Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning
11728=12−3 𐆕 Siliqua, siliquae
1288 Scripulum, scripuli «scruple»
1144=12−2 𐆔 Dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae «half a sextula»
172 𐆓 Sextula, sextulae «16 of an uncia»
148 Sicilicus, sicilici
136 𐆓𐆓 Binae sextulae, binarum sextularum «two sextulas» (duella, duellae)
124 Σ or 𐆒 or Є Semuncia, semunciae «12 uncia» (semi- + uncia)
18 Σ· or 𐆒· or Є· Sescuncia, sescunciae «1+12 uncias» (sesqui- + uncia)

Large numbers

During the centuries that Roman numerals remained the standard way of writing numbers throughout Europe, there were various extensions to the system designed to indicate larger numbers, none of which were ever standardised.

Apostrophus

«1630» on the Westerkerk in Amsterdam. «

M» and «

D» are given archaic «apostrophus» form.

One of these was the apostrophus,[47] in which 500 was written as IↃ, while 1,000 was written as CIↃ.[20] This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Cs and s as parentheses), which has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage.

Each additional set of C and surrounding CIↃ raises the value by a factor of ten: CCIↃↃ represents 10,000 and CCCIↃↃↃ represents 100,000. Similarly, each additional to the right of IↃ raises the value by a factor of ten: IↃↃ represents 5,000 and IↃↃↃ represents 50,000. Numerals larger than CCCIↃↃↃ do not occur.[48]

Page from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture of apostrophus and vinculum numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000).

Sometimes CIↃ was reduced to for 1,000. Similarly, IↃↃ for 5,000 was reduced to ; CCIↃↃ for 10,000 to ; IↃↃↃ for 50,000 to (ↇ); and CCCIↃↃↃ (ↈ) for 100,000 to .
[49]

IↃ and CIↃ most likely preceded, and subsequently influenced, the adoption of «D» and «M» in Roman numerals.

John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity ⟨∞⟩, and one conjecture is that he based it on , since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers.

Vinculum

Another system was the vinculum, in which conventional Roman numerals were multiplied by 1,000 by adding a «bar» or «overline».[49] It was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era: both systems were in simultaneous use around the Roman world (M for ‘1000’ was not in use until the Medieval period).[50]
[51]
The use of vinculum for multiples of 1,000 can be observed, for example, on the milestones erected by Roman soldiers along the Antonine Wall in the mid-2nd century AD.[52] The vinculum for marking 1,000s continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly as titulus.[53]

Some modern sources describe the vinculum as if it were a part of the current «standard».[54] However, this is purely hypothetical, since no common modern usage requires numbers larger than the current year (MMXXIII). Nonetheless, here are some examples, to give an idea of how it might be used:

  • IV = 4,000
  • IVDCXXVII = 4,627
  • XXV = 25,000
  • XXVCDLIX = 25,459

Use of Roman numeral «

I» (with exaggerated serifs) contrasting with the upper case letter «I».

This use of lines is distinct from the custom, once very common, of adding both underline and overline (or very large serifs) to a Roman numeral, simply to make it clear that it is a number, e.g.
Roman numerals drawn with connecting lines for 1967. There is some scope for confusion when an overline is meant to denote multiples of 1,000, and when not. The Greeks and Romans often overlined letters acting as numerals to highlight them from the general body of the text, without any numerical significance. This stylistic convention was, for example, also in use in the inscriptions of the Antonine Wall,[55] and the reader is required to decipher the intended meaning of the overline from the context.

Another medieval usage was the addition of vertical lines (or brackets) before and after the numeral to multiply it by 10:[citation needed] thus M for 10,000 as an alternative form for X. In combination with the overline the bracketed forms might be used to raise the multiplier to ten thousand, thus:

  • VIII for 80,000
  • XX for 200,000

This same syntax may also have indicated multiplication by 100[citation needed] so the above two examples are 800,000 and 2,000,000.

Origin

The system is closely associated with the ancient city-state of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural.

Etruscan numerals

Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC. At the time, the region was inhabited by diverse populations of which the Etruscans were the most advanced. The ancient Romans themselves admitted that the basis of much of their civilization was Etruscan. Rome itself was located next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy.

The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌡⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)[56]

The symbols ⟨𐌠⟩ and ⟨𐌡⟩ resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but ⟨𐌢⟩, ⟨𐌣⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩ did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as 𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, 𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers («three from twenty», etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However, they did not write 𐌠𐌡 for 4 (nor 𐌢𐌣 for 40), and wrote 𐌡𐌠𐌠, 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠 and 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠 for 7, 8, and 9, respectively.[56]

Early Roman numerals

The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: ⟨𐌠⟩, ⟨𐌢⟩, and ⟨𐌟⟩. The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from ⟨𐌡⟩ and ⟨𐌣⟩ to ⟨V⟩ and ⟨ↆ⟩ at some point. The latter had flattened to ⟨⊥⟩ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter ⟨L⟩.[48]

The symbol for 100 was written variously as ⟨𐌟⟩ or ⟨ↃIC⟩, and was then abbreviated to ⟨⟩ or ⟨C⟩, with ⟨C⟩ (which matched the Latin letter C) finally winning out. It might have helped that C was the initial letter of CENTUM, Latin for «hundred».

The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted by V or X overlaid with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a superimposed on a Þ. It became D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter D. It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for «thousand» was a CIↃ, and half of a thousand or «five hundred» is the right half of the symbol, IↃ, and this may have been converted into D.[20]

The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxed X: Ⓧ, , , and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi. Over time, the symbol changed to Ψ and . The latter symbol further evolved into , then , and eventually changed to M under the influence of the Latin word mille «thousand».[48]

According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols were I, X, C and Φ (or ) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (half an X is V, half a C is L and half a Φ/⊕ is D).[57]

Entrance to section

LII (52) of the Colosseum, with numerals still visible

Classical Roman numerals

The Colosseum was constructed in Rome in CE 72–80,[58] and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances from XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive,[59] to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical form: as largely standardised in current use. The most obvious anomaly (a common one that persisted for centuries) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation — while XL is used for 40, IV is avoided in favour of IIII: in fact gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.

Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Lower case, or minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so on.

13th century example of

iiij.

Since the Middle Ages, a «j» has sometimes been substituted for the final «i» of a «lower-case» Roman numeral, such as «iij» for 3 or «vij» for 7. This «j» can be considered a swash variant of «i«. Into the early 20th century, the use of a final «j» was still sometimes used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written.[60]

Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called «medieval Roman numerals». Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as «A» for «V«, or «Q» for «D«), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals («O» for «XI«, or «F» for «XL«). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.[61]

Number Medieval
abbreviation
Notes and etymology
5 A Resembles an upside-down V. Also said to equal 500.
6 Either from a ligature of VI, or from digamma (ϛ), the Greek numeral 6 (sometimes conflated with the στ ligature).[48]
7 S, Z Presumed abbreviation of septem, Latin for 7.
9.5 Scribal abbreviation, an x with a slash through it. Likewise, IX̷ represented 8.5
11 O Presumed abbreviation of onze, French for 11.
40 F Presumed abbreviation of English forty.
70 S Also could stand for 7, with the same derivation.
80 R
90 N Presumed abbreviation of nonaginta, Latin for 90. (Ambiguous with N for «nothing» (nihil)).
150 Y Possibly derived from the lowercase y’s shape.
151 K Unusual, origin unknown; also said to stand for 250.[62]
160 T Possibly derived from Greek tetra, as 4 × 40 = 160.
200 H Could also stand for 2 (see also 𐆙, the symbol for the dupondius). From a barring of two I‘s.
250 E
300 B
400 P, G
500 Q Redundant with D; abbreviates quingenti, Latin for 500. Also sometimes used for 500,000.[63]
800 Ω Borrowed from Gothic.
900 ϡ Borrowed from Gothic.
2000 Z

Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year.

Modern use

By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient «Arabic» equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are:

Spanish Real using

IIII instead of

IV as regnal number of Charles

IV of Spain.

  • Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI. These are referred to as regnal numbers and are usually read as ordinals; e.g. II is pronounced «the second». This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages, gaining widespread use in England during the reign of Henry VIII. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as Edward the Confessor. Some monarchs (e.g. Charles IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France) seem to have preferred the use of IIII instead of IV on their coinage (see illustration).
  • Generational suffixes, particularly in the U.S., for people sharing the same name across generations, for example William Howard Taft IV. These are also usually read as ordinals.
  • In the French Republican Calendar, initiated during the French Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year XIV (1805) when it was abandoned.
  • The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals.

The year of construction of the Cambridge Public Library, (USA) 1888, displayed in «standard» Roman numerals on its facade.

  • Hour marks on timepieces. In this context, 4 is often written IIII.
  • The year of construction on building façades and cornerstones.
  • Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of appendices and annexes, too.
  • Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e.g. Act iii, Scene 2).
  • Sequels to some films, video games, and other works (as in Rocky II, Grand Theft Auto V).
  • Outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships.
  • Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance:
    • The Summer and Winter Olympic Games (e.g. the XXI Olympic Winter Games; the Games of the XXX Olympiad).
    • The Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (e.g. Super Bowl XLII; Super Bowl 50 was a one-time exception[64]).
    • WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE (e.g. WrestleMania XXX). This usage has also been inconsistent.

Specific disciplines

In astronautics, United States rocket model variants are sometimes designated by Roman numerals, e.g. Titan I, Titan II, Titan III, Saturn I, Saturn V.

In astronomy, the natural satellites or «moons» of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet’s name. For example, Titan’s designation is Saturn VI.

In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table. They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice.

In education, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, «grade IX» is sometimes seen for «grade 9».

In entomology, the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals.

In graphic design stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values.

In law, Roman numerals are commonly used to help organize legal codes as part of an alphanumeric outline.

In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.

In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.

In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:

  • Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals.
  • In Roman Numeral Analysis, harmonic function is identified using Roman Numerals.
  • Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings.

In pharmacy, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsolete apothecaries’ system of measurement: including SS to denote «one half» and N to denote «zero».[44][65]

In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System.

In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes.

In sport the team containing the «top» players and representing a nation or province, a club or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often called the «1st XV«, while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team might be the «3rd XI«.

In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana.

In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX, as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for «seventy»).

Modern use in European languages other than English

Some uses that are rare or never seen in English speaking countries may be relatively common in parts of continental Europe and in other regions (e.g. Latin America) that use a European language other than English. For instance:

Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French XVIIIe siècle[66] and the Spanish siglo XVIII mean «18th century». Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favor Roman numerals (xviii век). On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes «18.» (with a period) before the local word for «century».

Boris Yeltsin’s signature, dated 10 November 1988, rendered as 10.

XI.’88.

Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: «4.VI.1789″ and «VI.4.1789″ both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789.

Business hours table on a shop window in Vilnius, Lithuania.

Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[67] and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by I. Sunday is represented by VII. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time.

Sign at 17.9 km on route SS4 Salaria, north of Rome, Italy.

Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering.[68][69] For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-III, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as 138-huis.

In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals. The sign IX/17 thus marks 17.9 km.

Certain romance-speaking countries use Roman numerals to designate assemblies of their national legislatures. For instance, the composition of the Italian Parliament from 2018 to 2022 (elected in the 2018 Italian general election) is called the XVIII Legislature of the Italian Republic (or more commonly the «XVIII Legislature»).

A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.

Unicode

The «Number Forms» block of the Unicode computer character set standard has a number of Roman numeral symbols in the range of code points from U+2160 to U+2188.[70] This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12 (Ⅻ or XII). One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that «[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters».[71]
The block also includes some apostrophus symbols for large numbers, an old variant of «L» (50) similar to the Etruscan character, the Claudian letter «reversed C», etc.

Symbol
Value 1,000 5,000 10,000 6 50 50,000 100,000

See also

  • Biquinary
  • Egyptian numerals
  • Etruscan numerals
  • Greek numerals
  • Hebrew numerals
  • Kharosthi numerals
  • Maya numerals
  • Roman abacus
  • Proto-writing
  • Roman numerals in Unicode

References

Notes

  1. ^ Without theorising about causation, it may be noted that IV and IX not only have fewer characters than IIII and VIIII, but are less likely to be confused (especially at a quick glance) with III and VIII.
  2. ^ For numbers over 3,999 see large numbers

Citations

  1. ^ Judkins, Maura (4 November 2011). «Public clocks do a number on Roman numerals». The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 August 2019. Most clocks using Roman numerals traditionally use IIII instead of IV… One of the rare prominent clocks that uses the IV instead of IIII is Big Ben in London.
  2. ^ Adams, Cecil (23 February 1990). «What is the proper way to style Roman numerals for the 1990s?». The Straight Dope.
  3. ^ a b Hayes, David P. «Guide to Roman Numerals». Copyright Registration and Renewal Information Chart and Web Site.
  4. ^ Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). «1 (Working with Arabic and Roman numerals)». Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians. CRC Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-203-49534-6. Table 1-1 Roman and Arabic numerals (table very similar to the table here, apart from inclusion of Vinculum notation.
  5. ^ Stanislas Dehaene (1997): The Number Sense : How the Mind Creates Mathematics. Oxford University Press; 288 pages. ISBN 9780199723096
  6. ^ Ûrij Vasilʹevič Prokhorov and Michiel Hazewinkel, editors (1990): Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Volume 10, page 502. Springer; 546 pages. ISBN 9781556080050
  7. ^ Dela Cruz, M. L. P.; Torres, H. D. (2009). Number Smart Quest for Mastery: Teacher’s Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc. ISBN 9789712352164.
  8. ^ Martelli, Alex; Ascher, David (2002). Python Cookbook. O’Reilly Media Inc. ISBN 978-0-596-00167-4.
  9. ^ a b Julius Caesar (52–49 BC): Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Book II, Section 4: «… XV milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; …» Section 8: «… ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et ad extremas fossas castella constituit…» Book IV, Section 15: «Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt.» Book VII, Section 4: «…in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte.»
  10. ^ Angelo Rocca (1612) De campanis commentarius. Published by Guillelmo Faciotti, Rome. Title of a Plate: «Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata» («Bell to be sounded by 24 men»).
  11. ^ Gerard Ter Borch (1673): Portrait of Cornelis de Graef. Date on painting: «Out. XXIIII Jaer. // M. DC. LXXIIII».
  12. ^ Pliny the Elder (77–79 AD): Naturalis Historia, Book III: «Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbem CCLXXXXVII p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader … ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, per CCCCL p. fluens …» Book IV: «Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII.» Book VI: «tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur.»
  13. ^ Thomas Bennet (1731): Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum … Editio tertia. Published by T. Astley, copy in the British Library; 149 pages. Page 24: «PRÆFIXA duo sunt viz. He emphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap VI Reg. LXXXX.) & Shin cum Segal sequente Dagesh, quod denotat pronomen relativum…»
  14. ^ Pico Della Mirandola (1486) Conclusiones sive Theses DCCCC («Conclusions, or 900 Theses»).
  15. ^ «360:12 tables, 24 chairs, and plenty of chalk». Roman Numerals…not quite so simple. 2 January 2011.
  16. ^ «Paul Lewis». Roman Numerals…How they work. 13 November 2021.
  17. ^ Milham, W.I. (1947). Time & Timekeepers. New York: Macmillan. p. 196.
  18. ^ a b Pickover, Clifford A. (2003). Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in Mathematics, Mind, and Meaning. Oxford University Press. p. 282. ISBN 978-0-19-534800-2.
  19. ^ Adams, Cecil; Zotti, Ed (1988). More of the straight dope. Ballantine Books. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-345-35145-6.
  20. ^ a b c Asimov, Isaac (1966). Asimov on Numbers (PDF). Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 12.
  21. ^ «Gallery: Museum’s North Entrance (1910)». Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2014. The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: «Dedicated to Art and Free to All MDCDIII.» These roman numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was part of the original building designed for the 1904 World’s Fair.
  22. ^ Reynolds, Joyce Maire; Spawforth, Anthony J. S. (1996). «numbers, Roman». In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866172-X.
  23. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1923). The Revised Latin Primer. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
  24. ^ «ROMAN function». support.microsoft.com.
  25. ^ Michaele Gasp. Lvndorphio (1621): Acta publica inter invictissimos gloriosissimosque&c. … et Ferdinandum II. Romanorum Imperatores…. Printed by Ian-Friderici Weissii. Page 123: «Sub Dato Pragæ IIIXX Decemb. A. C. M. DC. IIXX». Page 126, end of the same document: «Dabantur Pragæ 17 Decemb. M. DC. IIXX».
  26. ^ Raphael Sulpicius à Munscrod (1621): Vera Ac Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm. Page 16, line 1: «repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX». Page 41, upper right corner: «Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX». Page 42, upper left corner: «Febr. A. C. MDC.XIX». Page 70: «IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata….». Page 71: «XIX. Maij».
  27. ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1699): Als Ihre Königl. Majestät in Pohlen und …. Page 39: «… und der Umschrifft: LITHUANIA ASSERTA M. DC. IIIC [1699].»
  28. ^ Joh. Caspar Posner (1698): Mvndvs ante mvndvm sive De Chao Orbis Primordio, title page: «Ad diem jvlii A. O. R. M DC IIC».
  29. ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1700): Saxonia Nvmismatica: Das ist: Die Historie Des Durchlauchtigsten…. Page 26: «Die Revers hat eine feine Inscription: SERENISSIMO DN.DN… SENATUS.QVERNF. A. M DC IIC D. 18 OCT [year 1698 day 18 oct].»
  30. ^ Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1698): Opera Geographica et Historica. Helmstadt, J. M. Sustermann. Title page of first edition: «Bibliopolæ ibid. M DC IC».
  31. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin H. (1879). Latin grammar. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 150. ISBN 9781177808293.
  32. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004). Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2 ed.). p. 270. ISBN 0-8160-5026-0.
  33. ^ Boyne, William (1968). A manual of Roman coins. p. 13.
  34. ^ Degrassi, Atilius, ed. (1963). Inscriptiones Italiae. Vol. 13: Fasti et Elogia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato. Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani.
  35. ^ a b Stephen James Malone, (2005) Legio XX Valeria Victrix…. PhD thesis. On page 396 it discusses many coins with «Leg. IIXX» and notes that it must be Legion 22. The footnote on that page says: «The form IIXX clearly reflecting the Latin duo et vicensima ‘twenty-second’: cf. X5398, legatus I[eg II] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g; VI 1551, legatus leg] IIXX Prj; III 14207.7, miles leg IIXX; and III 10471-3, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including ‘XVIII PR’ – surely here the stonecutter’s hypercorrection for IIXX PR.
  36. ^ L’ Atre périlleux et Yvain, le chevalier au lion . 1301–1350.
  37. ^ a b M. Gachard (1862): «II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (nos CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)». Bulletin de la Commission royale d’Historie, volume 3, pages 345–554. Page 347: Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins…, quote: «Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIIIme de febvrier, l’an IIIIXXXIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99].» Page 356: Lettre de l’achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant…, quote: «… Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno XVcXIX [1519].» Page 374: Letters patentes de la rémission … de la ville de Bruxelles, quote: «… Op heden, tweentwintich [‘twenty-two’] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich [‘fifteen hundred thirty-two’] … Gegeven op ten vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven.» Page 419: Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation…, quote»: «Faiet le XVme de juillet XVc huytante-six [1586].» doi:10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033.
  38. ^ Herbert Edward Salter (1923) Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521 Oxford Historical Society, volume 76; 544 pages. Page 184 has the computation in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:iii:iiii + xxi:viii:viii + xlv:xiiii:i = iiixxxvii:vi:i, i.e. 10:3:4 + 21:8:8 + 45:14:1 = 77:6:1.
  39. ^ Johannis de Sancto Justo (1301): «E Duo Codicibus Ceratis» («From Two Texts in Wax»). In de Wailly, Delisle (1865): Contenant la deuxieme livraison des monumens des regnes de saint Louis,… Volume 22 of Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Page 530: «SUMMA totalis, XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII. l. III s. XI d. [Sum total, 13 thousand 5 hundred 3 score 13 livres, 3 sous, 11 deniers].
  40. ^ «Our Brand Story». SPC Ardmona. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  41. ^ Faith Wallis, trans. Bede: The Reckoning of Time (725), Liverpool, Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004. ISBN 0-85323-693-3.
  42. ^ Byrhtferth’s Enchiridion (1016). Edited by Peter S. Baker and Michael Lapidge. Early English Text Society 1995. ISBN 978-0-19-722416-8.
  43. ^ C. W. Jones, ed., Opera Didascalica, vol. 123C in Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina.
  44. ^ a b c Bachenheimer, Bonnie S. (2010). Manual for Pharmacy Technicians. ISBN 978-1-58528-307-1.
  45. ^ «RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the Sixth Legion». Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
  46. ^ Maher, David W.; Makowski, John F., «Literary Evidence for Roman Arithmetic with Fractions Archived 27 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine», Classical Philology 96 (2011): 376–399.
  47. ^ «Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary».
  48. ^ a b c d Perry, David J. Proposal to Add Additional Ancient Roman Characters to UCS Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  49. ^ a b Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Translated by David Bellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood, Ian Monk. John Wiley & Sons.
  50. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–109. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0.
  51. ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1982). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 0-520-05079-7.
  52. ^ «RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the Twentieth Legion». Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  53. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0.
  54. ^ «What is Vinculum Notation?». Numerals Converter. 4 March 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  55. ^ «RIB 2171. Building Inscription of the Second and Twentieth Legions». Roman Inscriptions in Britain. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  56. ^ a b Gilles Van Heems (2009)> «Nombre, chiffre, lettre : Formes et réformes. Des notations chiffrées de l’étrusque» («Between Numbers and Letters: About Etruscan Notations of Numeral Sequences»). Revue de philologie, de littérature et d’histoire anciennes, volume LXXXIII (83), issue 1, pages 103–130. ISSN 0035-1652.
  57. ^ Keyser, Paul (1988). «The Origin of the Latin Numerals 1 to 1000». American Journal of Archaeology. 92 (4): 529–546. doi:10.2307/505248. JSTOR 505248. S2CID 193086234.
  58. ^ Hopkins, Keith (2005). The Colosseum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01895-2.
  59. ^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-288003-1.
  60. ^ Bastedo, Walter A. Materia Medica: Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Prescription Writing for Students and Practitioners, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 1919) p582. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
  61. ^ Capelli, A. Dictionary of Latin Abbreviations. 1912.
  62. ^ Bang, Jørgen. Fremmedordbog, Berlingske Ordbøger, 1962 (Danish)
  63. ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1983). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. University of California Press. p. 44. ISBN 9780520038981. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  64. ^ NFL won’t use Roman numerals for Super Bowl 50 Archived 1 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine, National Football League. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  65. ^ Reddy, Indra K.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). Essential Math and Calculations for Pharmacy Technicians. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-49534-6.
  66. ^ Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l’imprimerie nationale (in French) (6th ed.). Paris: Imprimerie nationale. March 2011. p. 126. ISBN 978-2-7433-0482-9. On composera en chiffres romains petites capitales les nombres concernant : ↲ 1. Les siècles.
  67. ^ Beginners latin Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Government of the United Kingdom. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  68. ^ Roman Arithmetic Archived 22 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Southwestern Adventist University. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  69. ^ Roman Numerals History Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  70. ^ «Unicode Number Forms» (PDF).
  71. ^ «The Unicode Standard, Version 6.0 – Electronic edition» (PDF). Unicode, Inc. 2011. p. 486.

Sources

  • Menninger, Karl (1992). Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-27096-8.

Further reading

  • Aczel, Amir D. 2015. Finding Zero: A Mathematician’s Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers. 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Goines, David Lance. A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Analysis of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Arabic Numerals. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982.
  • Houston, Stephen D. 2012. The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
  • Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. «Roman numerals and the abacus.» Classica et medievalia 26: 147–60.

External links

  • «Roman Numerals (Totally Epic Guide)». Know The Romans.

Римские цифры актуальны и по сей день, несмотря на то, что в повседневной жизни их применение усложнило бы жизнь для большинства профессий, если бы их использовали вместо уже привычных арабских. Большие цифры выглядят довольно устрашающими, например, число 3 999 на римский лад будет MMMCMXCIX. Это число является последним, которое можно записать таким образом. Поэтому чаще всего применяют римские цифры по шкале от одного до сто. О них и будет идти речь в этой статье.

Содержание

  1. Немного истории
  2. Формирование римских цифр – счёт от 1 до 100
  3. Сервисы по преобразованию арабских цифр в римские
  4. Применение в наши дни

Немного истории

Римские цифры использовали в древнем Риме в непозиционной системе счисления. В раннем периоде римляне записывали и большие цифры. В то время максимальным числом являлось 399 999. Цифры записывались в следующей последовательности: сначала записывались сотни тысяч, затем десятки тысяч, тысячи, сотни, десятки и единицы.

Часто для того, чтобы выделить в тексте числа, их записывали с чертой сверху. Иногда записывались числа с чертой и сверху, и снизу. Такая запись применялась в русском рукописном тексте. В типографии римские цифры записывались без черт из-за возникновения технических сложностей.

Иногда авторы применяли черту сверху над римским числом для увеличения его значения в тысячу раз. Например, римская цифра 5 с чертой наверху — V̅, обозначала 5 000.

Это интересно: римские цифры от 1 до 10.

Формирование римских цифр – счёт от 1 до 100

До 19 века число 4 на римский манер записывалось как IIII. Затем число изменили, и оно обрело новый, упрощенный вид — IV (5 — 1). Меньшие цифры могут стоять перед большими. В этом случае они отнимаются от большего. И наоборот, если единицы стоят после десятков, то они суммируются, например, VI (5 + 1) — это цифра 6. При этом вычесть можно только цифру, обозначающую один или степени десятки. Уменьшаемые могут быть только ближайшие к вычитаемому в числовом ряду две цифры.Нельзя повторять меньшие цифры в числе.

Из этого следует только 6 примеров правила вычитания:

  • CM (1 000 — 100) — 900;
  • CD (500 — 100) — 400;
  • XC (100 — 10) — 90;
  • IX (10 — 1) — 9;
  • IV (5 — 1) — 4.

Например, число 94 римскими цифрами будет XCIV, то есть: 100 — 10 + 5 — 1. Стоить заметить, что другие методы вычитания применять ранее было недопустимо. Запись арабской цифры 99 должно выглядеть так: XCIX, а не IC. Но в наши дни в популярном текстовом редакторе Microsoft Word и Microsoft Excel применяются упрощенные числа. Здесь допустимо использоваться конструкцию IC, а также другие — VC (95), вместо XCV и так далее.

Таблица римских цифр

Некоторые фирмы по производству часов до сих пор используют запись четверки как IIII. Скорее всего делают они это скорее по эстетическим соображениям. Есть несколько версий о том, почему такая форма более приемлема.

По одной из версий запись IV является в имени бога дневного света и неба Юпитера первой буквой — IVPITER.

Арабские цифры:

Римские цифры:

1

I

2

II

3

III

4

IV

5

V

6

VI

7

VII

8

VIII

9

IX

10

X

11

XI

12

XII

13

XIII

14

XIV

15

XV

16

XVI

17

XVII

18

XVIII

19

XIX

20

XX

21

XXI

22

XXII

23

XXIII

24

XXIV

25

XXV

26

XXVI

27

XXVII

28

XXVIII

29

XXIX

30

XXX

31

XXXI

32

XXXII

33

XXXIII

34

XXXIV

35

XXXV

36

XXXVI

37

XXXVII

38

XXXVIII

39

XXXIX

40

XL

41

XLI

42

XLII

43

XLIII

44

XLIV

45

XLV

46

XLVI

47

XLVII

48

XLVIII

49

XLIX

50

L

51

LI

52

LII

53

LIII

54

LIV

55

LV

56

LVI

57

LVII

58

LVIII

59

LIX

60

LX

61

LXI

62

LXII

63

LXIII

64

LXIV

65

LXV

66

LXVI

67

LXVII

68

LXVIII

69

LXIX

70

LXX

71

LXXI

72

LXXII

73

LXXIII

74

LXXIV

75

LXXV

76

LXXVI

77

LXXVII

78

LXXVIII

79

LXXIX

80

LXXX

81

LXXXI

82

LXXXII

83

LXXXIII

84

LXXXIV

85

LXXXV

86

LXXXVI

87

LXXXVII

88

LXXXVIII

89

LXXXIX

90

XC

91

XCI

92

XCII

93

XCIII

94

XCIV

95

XCV

96

XCVI

97

XCVII

98

XCVIII

99

XCIX

100

C

101

CI

Сервисы по преобразованию арабских цифр в римские

Пользователям достаточно сложно запомнить все римские цифры от 1 до 100 и более. Тем более принципы их образования. Этого делать и не нужно. Есть специальные конвертеры, которые помогут вам преобразовать любые арабские цифры в римские и обратно. Одним из таких сервисов является calc.ru. Здесь вы сможете перевести арабские, римские или индийские цифры в разной последовательности. Переводить можно только целые числа.

Итак:

  1. Перейдите на страницу https://www.calc.ru/rimskiye-indiyskiye-arabskiye-tsifri.html.
  2. В поле «Перевести целое число» введите число, которое нужно перевести.
  3. Выберите одну из числовых систем мышью.
  4. Нажмите кнопку ниже «Перевести».Сервис для конвертации римских цифр

Под формой ввода находятся примеры записи веков римским цифрами.

Еще один удобный сервис для перевода любого арабского числа в римское. Здесь есть 2 поля ввода. Он находится по адресу http://infofaq.ru/perevod-v-rimskie-chisla.html.

Пользоваться им также достаточно просто:

  • под описанием истории появления римских цифр, найдите форму;
  • в первой строке можно вводить арабские цифры, в поле ниже отображается результат;
  • и наоборот, если ввести в нижнее поле римскую цифру, вы получите результат в верхней строке.

Читайте также: арабские цифры от 1 до 10.

Применение в наши дни

Чаще всего римские цифры сегодня применяются для записи тысячелетия или веков. Их используют для придания роману или другому тексту оттенок архаичности. Часто такие цифры используются в исторических книгах и учебниках. Применяются цифры и в написаниях исторических имен для обозначения порядкового номера, к примеру, Петр l, Рамсес ll.

Киноиндустрия США часто употребляет римские цифры для обозначения части фильмов и телесериалов. Некоторые европейские страны записывают так дни недели. А в Голландии железнодорожные промежутки пути имеют обозначения каждого сотого метра римскими цифрами. Есть заблуждение, что западные швейные фирмы используют римские цифры для обозначения размеров — L, M, S, XL, но это не так. На самом деле это сокращения от английских слов: Large (большой), eXtra (весьма, очень), Small (маленький). Чаще всего в странах СНГ применяются римские цифры от 1 до 100.

  • Как пишется цито на направлении
  • Как пишется цитирование в тексте
  • Как пишется цитатный план
  • Как пишется цитатная характеристика
  • Как пишется цитата и автор