Как правильно пишется имя самого известного вавилонского царя

Содержание

Правитель Вавилона
Успехи Хаммурапи
Великий строитель

Память о прекрасном и величественной городе Вавилоне жива и в наши дни. Он появился там, где реки Тигр и Евфрат подходят наиболее близко друг к другу. Вавилонское царство прошло долгий путь от своего зарождения до запустения и распада, но время величия Вавилона связано с человеком, имя которого сохранилось в веках.

Могущественный правитель, мудрый царь Хаммурапи, сумел превратить Вавилон в главный торговый и политический центр Ближнего Востока. Этого правителя неслучайно называют великим строителем — Хаммурапи посвятил укреплению и развитию своего города многие годы. Кроме того, при нём были существенно расширены границы царства. А что же известно о жизни Хаммурапи?

Правитель Вавилона

О дате рождения знаменитого царя Хаммурапи историкам ничего не известно. Его правление началось примерно в 1790-х годах до нашей эры и продолжалось 43 года, а потому можно предположить, что на момент своего восшествия на вавилонский престол он был очень молод. Происхождение правителя тоже остаётся загадкой, которую частично может раскрыть его имя. Согласно одним предположениям. “Хамму-рапи” переводится как “предок-целитель”. А вот сторонники другой версии считают, что произносилось царское имя как “Хамму-раби” и переводилось как “великий предок”.

Хаммурапи — царь Вавилона / © Matias Cabezas Montoya / matias-cabezas.artstation.com

Став одним из самых молодых правителей Вавилонского царства, Хаммурапи вряд ли считал себя счастливцем. На тот момент его владения были весьма скромными и включали в себя всего семь крупных городов. А вот окружали Вавилонию грозные соседи — воинственные царства Ларсы, Эшнунны и Шамши-Адада I. Нельзя сказать, что начало правления Хаммурапи было успешно. Не имея опыта, он начал противостояние с Ларсой. Но после первых побед последовала череда поражений, а захваченные войсками Хаммурапи территории вновь были возвращены под контроль Ларсы.

Успехи Хаммурапи

Однако вавилонский царь умел не только стойко переносить удары судьбы, но и исправлять собственные ошибки. Война с Ларсой продолжалась три десятилетия и завершилась победой Хаммурапи, который стал властителем всего Шумера и был провозглашён “царем четырех стран света”. Он расширил границы своего государства, превратив Вавилонское царство в поистине великую державу, с интересами которой теперь считались даже самые воинственные соседи.

При Хаммурапи Вавилон действительно стал самым влиятельным государством Древнего мира, но это было не только заслугой военных успехов правителя. Мудрый царь умело сочетал мощь своей армии, дипломатическое искусство и умение укреплять границы своего молодого государства. Хаммурапи был величайшим политиком своего времени и очень дальновидным человеком. Понимая, что союз с одним из соседей выгоден, он заключал его, однако не поступался своими интересами. Но если со временем царь чувствовал, что проку от взаимной поддержки мало, с лёгкостью разрывал дипломатические отношения.

Царь Хаммурапи / © Vandrell / deviantart.com/vandrell

Великий строитель

Хаммурапи мечтал укрепить Вавилон, превратив его в неприступную крепость. Он стал первым вавилонским царём, который возвёл защитные стены вокруг города. Кроме того, не забывал правитель и об авторитете среди подданных. За время своего правления он четырежды аннулировал долги народа, строил мосты и прокладывал новые дороги на подвластных землях.

При Хаммурапи был вырыт большой оросительный канал, что позволило уберечь Вавилонское царство от наводнений. При этом царь заявлял, что все его дела — лишь выполнение обязательств перед богами. Говоря современным языком, Хаммурапи знал, что такое грамотный пиар. При этом он не прикрывался ложной скромностью, прямо указывая на собственные заслуги. В “Истории цивилизации” Уилла Дюранта приводятся слова, сказанные царём после строительства оросительного канала:

“Берега Евфрата с обеих сторон я превратил в возделываемые земли. Я насыпал кучи зерна, я обеспечил землю безупречной водой… Разрознённых людей я собрал и обеспечил пастбищами и водой. Я дал им всё, я выпас их в изобилии и поселил в мирных жилищах”.

Хаммурапи правил Вавилонским царством на протяжении 43 лет. Он стал создателем Кодекса законов, заложившего основы правовой базы на территории Шумера. Несмотря на то, что некоторые законы Хаммурапи могут показаться современному человеку варварскими, есть среди них и те, которые не теряют актуальности по сей день — например, принцип презумпции невиновности или выплаты алиментов. К сожалению, последние годы царя были омрачены болезнью. Воспользовавшись слабостью правителя, его сын Самсу-илуна захватил престол ещё при жизни Хаммурапи, которому жить оставалось совсем недолго. Однако продолжить дела великого правителя Вавилона его последователям так и не удалось — никто не смог превзойти великого Хаммурапи.

Источник

В том месте, где реки Евфрат и Тигр подходят ближе всего друг к другу, когда-то существовал прекрасный город Вавилон, сумевший превратиться из небольшой территориальной общины в столицу великого Вавилонского царства.

Wikimedia Commons / Hamody al-iraqi (CC BY-SA 4.0)

За время своего существования он не раз подвергался разрушениям, набегам, захватам и окончательно опустел во II столетии, однако слава его сохранилась до наших дней. Своим величием Вавилон во многом обязан человеку по имени Хаммурапи, который смог превратить его в важнейший экономический и культурный центр Ближнего Востока.

Кто такой Хаммурапи? Чем он знаменит и что сделал для своего государства?

Кто такой Хаммурапи?

Хаммурапи – самый известный из вавилонских правителей. Дата его рождения до сих пор не установлена, но ученые сходятся во мнении, что во время восхождения на престол он был достаточно молод. Не знают историки и точного происхождения его имени.

Некоторые исследователи склоняются к прочтению «Хамму-раби», что означает «предок велик». Другие полагают, что царя называли «Хамму-рапи», то есть «предок-целитель».

Когда Хаммурапи начал править в Вавилонии, его государство было весьма скромным и помимо столицы включало только несколько небольших городов на расстоянии до 80 км. События его 43-летнего правления дошли до нас благодаря принятой в Месопотамии традиции называть годы по каким-либо деяниям правителей.

Wikimedia Commons / Mohamm3dfadil (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Начало царствования Хаммурапи ознаменовалось установлением так называемой «справедливости» (прощения долгов всем жителям), поэтому второй год его правления получил название «год справедливости Хаммурапи».

Когда правил Хаммупапи?

Считается, что Хаммурапи правил в период с 1793 по 1750 год до нашей эры. Его восхождение на трон проходило по наследственному принципу, то есть предшественником царя был его отец Син-мубаллит. К моменту начала его правления Вавилония существовала менее одного столетия и была окружена тремя грозными государствами – Шамши-Адад, Эшнунна и Ларса.

Сведения о первых 15 годах царствования Хаммурапи достаточно ограничены. Известно только, что он активно занимался строительством и несколько раз пытался расширить свои территории за счет соседних стран. Истинная слава пришла к нему только с 30-го года правления, когда царь совершил несколько победоносных походов и значительно увеличил размеры Вавилонского царства.

Чем прославился Хаммурапи?

Всю свою жизнь Хаммурапи стремился возвеличить Вавилонию и сделать ее самым могущественным центром Востока. На пути к поставленной цели он сумел покорить многие государства в окрестностях Вавилона, но наткнулся на жесткое сопротивление со стороны Римсина, правителя Ларсы.

Wikimedia Commons / Juana Manuel (CC BY 2.0)

Борьба между царствами длилась на протяжении 30 лет и, наконец, в 1762 году до нашей эры Ларса сдалась, а Римсин был изгнан за ее пределы. После победы Хаммурапи стал единоличным правителем всего Шумера и назывался «царем четырех стран света».

Наряду с военными победами, он прославился как мудрый правитель, создавший строго централизованную и упорядоченную систему власти. Царь придавал большое значение хозяйственным делам в своем государстве, вникал во все вопросы, проводил судебные и административные реформы.

Его законодательная деятельность была грандиозна по своим масштабам и до сих пор производит впечатление на историков. Во время своего правления Хаммурапи издал Кодекс законов, которые служили правосудию и позволяли поддерживать порядок в стране.

Какие законы ввел Хаммурапи?

Законник Хаммурапи включал в себя 282 статьи и был высечен на камне на 35-ый год его царствования. Камень стоял на главной площади и напоминал горожанам, что никто не может отговориться незнанием законов. Спустя 600 лет Кодекс вывезли в Сузы, где позднее его обнаружили археологи. До нас дошли только 247 записей, поскольку остальные были стерты с течением времени.

Согласно законам Хаммурапи, господствующая роль в вавилонской семье отводилась мужу. Он мог распоряжаться своим семейством, а при необходимости продавать детей любому, кто захочет их купить.

Жена имела право на развод, но только в том случае, если муж занимался прелюбодеянием, необоснованно обвинял ее в неверности или покидал семью. Все дети наследовали имущество родителей в равных долях, независимо от пола.

Wikimedia Commons / Mohamm3dfadil (CC BY-SA 4.0)

В уголовном производстве предусматривалось правило равноправия. Если сын ударил отца, ему отрубали руку, если человек кому-то выколол глаз, ему тоже выкалывали глаз.

В целом же Кодекс законов Хаммурапи дает историкам более полное понимание жизни в Древней Месопотамии и выступает важнейшим источником древневосточного права, которого люди придерживались до II столетия нашей эры.

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Источник

King of Babylon
šakkanakki Bābili šar Bābili
Stylised version of the star of Shamash^[a]

Last native king Nabonidus 25 May 556 BC – 13 October 539 BC

Details
First monarch	Sumu-abum
Last monarch	Nabonidus (last native king) Shamash-eriba or Nidin-Bel (last native rebel) Artabanus III (last foreign ruler attested as king) Artabanus IV (last Parthian king in Babylonia)
Formation	c. 1894 BC
Abolition	539 BC (last native king) 484 BC or 336/335 BC (last native rebel) AD 81 (last foreign ruler attested as king) AD 224 (last Parthian king in Babylonia)
Appointer	Various: Election by the Babylonian priesthood or aristocracy Hereditary inheritance Usurpation/conquest of Babylon

The king of Babylon (Akkadian: šakkanakki Bābili, later also šar Bābili) was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon and its kingdom, Babylonia, which existed as an independent realm from the 19th century BC to its fall in the 6th century BC. For the majority of its existence as an independent kingdom, Babylon ruled most of southern Mesopotamia, composed of the ancient regions of Sumer and Akkad. The city experienced two major periods of ascendancy, when Babylonian kings rose to dominate large parts of the Ancient Near East: the First Babylonian Empire (or Old Babylonian Empire, c. 1894/1880–1595 BC) and the Second Babylonian Empire (or Neo-Babylonian Empire, 626–539 BC). Babylon was ruled by Hammurabi, who created Hammurabi’s code.

Many of Babylon’s kings were of foreign origin. Throughout the city’s nearly two-thousand year history, it was ruled by kings of native Babylonian (Akkadian), Amorite, Kassite, Elamite, Aramean, Assyrian, Chaldean, Persian, Greek and Parthian origin. A king’s cultural and ethnic background does not appear to have been important for the Babylonian perception of kingship, the important matter instead being whether the king was capable of executing the duties traditionally ascribed to the Babylonian king: establishing peace and security, upholding justice, honouring civil rights, refraining from unlawful taxation, respecting religious traditions, constructing temples, providing gifts to the gods in the temples and maintaining cultic order. Babylonian revolts of independence during the times the city was ruled by foreign empires probably had little to do with the rulers of these empires not being Babylonians and more to do with the rulers rarely visiting Babylon and failing to partake in the city’s rituals and traditions.

Babylon’s last native king was Nabonidus, who reigned from 556 to 539 BC. Nabonidus’s rule was ended through Babylon being conquered by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. Though early Achaemenid kings continued to place importance on Babylon and continued using the title ‘king of Babylon’, later Achaemenid rulers being ascribed the title is probably only something done by the Babylonians themselves, with the kings themselves having abandoned it. Babylonian scribes continued to recognise rulers of the empires that controlled Babylonia as their kings until the time of the Parthian Empire, when Babylon was gradually abandoned. Though Babylon never regained independence after the Achaemenid conquest, there were several attempts by the Babylonians to drive out their foreign rulers and re-establish their kingdom, possibly as late as 336/335 BC under the rebel Nidin-Bel.

Introduction[edit]

Royal titles[edit]

Three different attested spellings in Neo-Babylonian Akkadian cuneiform for the title ‘king of Babylon’ (šar Bābili). The topmost rendition follows the Antiochus cylinder, the other two follow building inscriptions by Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC).

Throughout the city’s long history, various titles were used to designate the ruler of Babylon and its kingdom, the most common titles being ‘viceroy of Babylon’, ‘king of Karduniash’ and ‘king of Sumer and Akkad’.^[2] Use of one of the titles did not mean that the others could not be used simultaneously. For instance, the Neo-Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III (r. 729–727 BC in Babylon), used all three of the aforementioned titles.^[3]

Viceroy (or governor) of Babylon (šakkanakki Bābili)^[4] – emphasises the political dominion of Babylon itself.^[2] For much of the city’s history, its rulers referred to themselves as viceroys or governors, rather than kings. The reason for this was that Babylon’s true king was formally considered to be its national deity, Marduk. By not explicitly claiming the royal title, Babylonian rulers thus showed reverence to the city’s god.^[5] The reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC) has been noted as a particular break in this tradition,^[5] as he assumed the title king of Babylon (šar Bābili),^[6] which may have contributed to widespread negative reception of him in Babylonia.^[5] However, šar Bābili is recorded as being used in some inscriptions from before Sennacherib’s time, such as in the inscriptions of his father and predecessor Sargon II (r. 710–705 BC in Babylon), who used it interchangeably with šakkanakki Bābili.^[4] Though Sennacherib’s successors would primarily use šakkanakki Bābili,^[7] there are likewise examples of them instead using šar Bābili.^[8] The titles would also be used interchangeably by the later Neo-Babylonian kings.^[9]
King of Karduniash (šar Karduniaš)^[10] – refers to rule of southern Mesopotamia as a whole.^[2] ‘Karduniash’ was the Kassite name for the Babylonian kingdom, and the title ‘king of Karduniash’ was introduced by the city’s third dynasty (the Kassites).^[11] The title continued to be used long after the Kassites had lost control of Babylon, for instance as late as under the native king Nabu-shuma-ukin I (r. c. 900–888 BC)^[12] and the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC).^[7]
King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi)^[13] – refers to rule of southern Mesopotamia as a whole.^[2] A title originally used by the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC), centuries prior to Babylon’s foundation. The title was used by kings to connect themselves to the culture and legacy of the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations,^[14] as well as to lay claim to the political hegemony achieved during the ancient Akkadian Empire. The title was also a geographical one, in that southern Mesopotamia was typically divided into the two regions Sumer (the south) and Akkad (the north), meaning that ‘king of Sumer and Akkad’ referred to rulership over the entire country.^[11] The title was used by the Babylonian kings until the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, and was also assumed by Cyrus the Great, who conquered Babylon and ruled Babylonia until his death in 530 BC.^[15]

Role and legitimacy[edit]

The Babylonian kings derived their right to rule from divine appointment by Babylon’s patron deity Marduk and through consecration by the city’s priests.^[16] Marduk’s main cult image (often conflated with the god himself), the statue of Marduk, was prominently used in the coronation rituals for the kings, who received their crowns «out of the hands» of Marduk during the New Year’s festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the deity.^[17] The king’s rule and his role as Marduk’s vassal on Earth were reaffirmed annually at this time of year, when the king entered the Esagila, Babylon’s main cult temple, alone on the fifth day of the New Year’s Festival each year and met with the high priest. The high priest removed the regalia from the king, slapped him across the face and made him kneel before Marduk’s statue. The king would then tell the statue that he had not oppressed his people and that he had maintained order throughout the year, whereafter the high priest would reply (on behalf of Marduk) that the king could continue to enjoy divine support for his rule, returning the royal regalia.^[18] Through being a patron of Babylon’s temples, the king extended his generosity towards the Mesopotamian gods, who in turn empowered his rule and lent him their authority.^[16]

Babylonian kings were expected to establish peace and security, uphold justice, honor civil rights, refrain from unlawful taxation, respect religious traditions and maintain cultic order. None of the king’s responsibilities and duties required him to be ethnically or even culturally Babylonian. Any foreigner sufficiently familiar with the royal customs of Babylonia could adopt the title, though they might then require the assistance of the native priesthood and the native scribes. Ethnicity and culture does not appear to have been important in the Babylonian perception of kingship: many foreign kings enjoyed support from the Babylonians and several native kings were despised.^[19] That the rule of some foreign kings was not supported by the Babylonians probably has little to do with their ethnic or cultural background, but rather that they were perceived as not properly executing the traditional duties of the Babylonian king.^[20]

Dynasties[edit]

The name of Babylon’s first dynasty (palû Babili, simply ‘dynasty of Babylon’) in Neo-Babylonian Akkadian cuneiform

As with other monarchies, the kings of Babylon are grouped into a series of royal dynasties, a practice started by the ancient Babylonians themselves in their king lists.^[21]^[22] The generally accepted Babylonian dynasties should not be understood as familial groupings in the same vein as the term is commonly used by historians for ruling families in later kingdoms and empires. Though Babylon’s first dynasty did form a dynastic grouping where all monarchs were related, the dynasties of the first millennium BC, notably the Dynasty of E, did not constitute a series of coherent familial relationships at all. In a Babylonian sense, the term dynasty, rendered as palû or palê, related to a sequence of monarchs from the same ethnic or tribal group (i.e. the Kassite dynasty), the same region (i.e. the dynasties of the Sealand) or the same city (i.e. the dynasties of Babylon and Isin).^[22] In some cases, kings known to be genealogically related, such as Eriba-Marduk (r. c. 769–760 BC) and his grandson Marduk-apla-iddina II (r. 722–710 BC and 703 BC), were separated into different dynasties, the former designated as belonging to the Dynasty of E and the latter as belonging to the (Third) Sealand dynasty.^[23]

Sources[edit]

Among all the different types of documents uncovered through excavations in Mesopotamia, the most important for reconstructions of chronology and political history are king-lists and chronicles, grouped together under the term ‘chronographic texts’. Mesopotamian king lists are of special importance when reconstructing the sequences of monarchs, as they are collections of royal names and regnal dates, also often with additional information such as the relations between the kings, arranged in a table format. In terms of Babylonian rulers, the main document is the Babylonian King List (BKL), a group of three independent documents: Babylonian King List A, B, and C. In addition to the main Babylonian King Lists, there are also additional king-lists that record rulers of Babylon.^[24]

Babylonian King List A (BKLa, BM 33332)^[25] — created at some point after the foundation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylonian King List A records the kings of Babylon from the beginning of Babylon’s first dynasty under Sumu-abum (r. c. 1894–1881 BC) to Kandalanu (r. 648–627 BC). The end of the tablet is broken off, suggesting that it originally listed rulers after Kandalanu as well, possibly also listing the kings of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. All dynasties are separated by horizontal lines, under which subscript records a sum of the regnal years of each dynasty, and the number of kings the dynasties produced. Written in Neo-Babylonian script.^[26]
Babylonian King List B (BKLb, BM 38122)^[25] — date of origin uncertain, written in Neo-Babylonian script. Babylonian King List B records the kings of Babylon’s first dynasty, and the kings of the First Sealand dynasty, with subscripts recording the number of kings and their summed up reigns in these dynasties. Regnal years are recorded for the kings of the first dynasty, but omitted for the kings of the Sealand dynasty. The regnal years used for the kings are inconsistent with their actual reign lengths, possibly due to the author having copied the list from a document where the years had been lost or damaged. The list records genealogical information for all but two of the kings of the first dynasty, but only for two of the kings of the Sealand dynasty. Because the document is essentially two lists for two dynasties, it is possible that it was copied and extracted from longer king lists in the late period for some unknown purpose.^[26]
Babylonian King List C (BKLc)^[27] — a short text,^[28] written in Neo-Babylonian script.^[26] King List C is important as a source on the second dynasty of Isin, as the first seven lines of the preserved nine lines of text provide a portion of the sequence of kings of this dynasty and their dates. The corresponding section in Babylonian King List A is incompletely preserved.^[28] As the list ends with the Isin dynasty’s seventh king, Marduk-shapik-zeri (r. c. 1081–1069 BC), it is possible that it was written during the reign of his successor, Adad-apla-iddina (r. c. 1068–1047 BC).^[26] Its short length and unusual shape (being curved rather than flat)^[28] means that it might have been a practice tablet used by a young Babylonian student.^[26]
Synchronistic King List (ScKL)^[29] — a collection of individual tablets and examplars. The Synchronistic King List features two columns, and records the kings of Babylon and Assyria together, with kings recorded next to each other presumably being contemporaries. Unlike most of the other documents, this list generally omits regnal years and any genealogical information, but it also differs in including many of the chief scribes under the Assyrian and Babylonian kings. The tablet with the earliest known portion of the list begins with the Assyrian king Erishum I (uncertain regnal dates) and the Babylonian king Sumu-la-El (r. c. 1880–1845 BC). The latest known portion ends with Ashur-etil-ilani (r. 631–627 BC) in Assyria and Kandalanu in Babylon. As it is written in Neo-Assyrian script, it might have been created near the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.^[30]
Uruk King List (UKL, IM 65066)^[27] — the preserved portion of this king list records rulers from Kandalanu in the Assyrian period to Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BC) in the Seleucid period.^[27]
Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period (BM 35603)^[27] — written at Babylon at some point after 141 BC, recording rulers from the start of Hellenistic rule in Babylonia under Alexander the Great (r. 331–323 in Babylon),^[31] to the end of Seleucid rule under Demetrius II Nicator (r. 145–141 BC in Babylon) and the conquest of Babylonia by the Parthian Empire.^[32] Entries before Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC) and after Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175–164 BC) are damaged and fragmentary.^[33]

As years in Babylon were named after the current king, and the current year of their reign, date formulas in economic, astronomical and literary cuneiform texts written in Babylonia also provide highly important and useful chronological data.^[34]^[35]

Kingship after the Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit]

In addition to the king lists described above, cuneiform inscriptions and tablets confidently establish that the Babylonians continued to recognise the foreign rulers of Babylonia as their legitimate monarchs after the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and throughout the rule of the Achaemenid (539–331 BC), Argead (331–310 BC), and Seleucid (305–141 BC) empires, as well as well into the rule of the Parthian Empire (141 BC – AD 224).^[36]

Early Achaemenid kings greatly respected Babylonian culture and history, and regarded Babylonia as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union.^[17] Despite this, the Babylonians would grow to resent Achaemenid rule, just as they had resented Assyrian rule during the time their country was under the rule of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (722–626 BC).^[17] Babylonian resentment of the Achaemenids likely had little to do with the Achaemenids being foreigners, but rather that the Achaemenid kings were perceived to not be capable of executing the duties of the Babylonian king properly, in line with established Babylonian tradition. This perception then led to frequent Babylonian revolts, an issue experienced by both the Assyrians and the Achaemenids. Since the capitals of the Assyrian and Achaemenid empires were elsewhere, these foreign kings did not regularly partake in the city’s rituals (meaning that they could not be celebrated in the same way that they traditionally were) and they rarely performed their traditional duties to the Babylonian cults through constructing temples and presenting cultic gifts to the city’s gods. This failure might have been interpreted as the kings thus not having the necessary divine endorsement to be considered true kings of Babylon.^[37]

The standard regnal title used by the early Achaemenid kings, not only in Babylon but throughout their empire, was ‘king of Babylon and king of the lands’. The Babylonian title was gradually abandoned by the Achaemenid king Xerxes I (r. 486–465 BC), after he had to put down a major Babylonian uprising. Xerxes also divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy into smaller sub-units and, according to some sources, damaged the city itself in an act of retribution.^[17] The last Achaemenid king whose own royal inscriptions officially used the title ‘king of Babylon’ was Xerxes I’s son and successor Artaxerxes I (r. 465–424 BC).^[38] After Artaxerxes I’s rule there are few examples of monarchs themselves using the title, though the Babylonians continued to ascribe it to their rulers. The only known official explicit use of ‘king of Babylon’ by a king during the Seleucid period can be found in the Antiochus cylinder, a clay cylinder containing a text wherein Antiochus I Soter (r. 281–261 BC) calls himself, and his father Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC), by the title ‘king of Babylon’, alongside various other ancient Mesopotamian titles and honorifics.^[39] The Seleucid kings continued to respect Babylonian traditions and culture, with several Seleucid kings recorded as having «given gifts to Marduk» in Babylon and the New Year’s Festival still being recorded as a contemporary event.^[40]^[41]^[42] One of the last times the festival is known to have been celebrated was in 188 BC, under the Seleucid king Antiochus III (r. 222–187 BC), who prominently partook in the rituals.^[42] From the Hellenistic period (i. e. the rule of the Greek Argeads and Seleucids) onwards, Greek culture became established in Babylonia, but per Oelsner (2014), the Hellenistic culture «did not deeply penetrate the ancient Babylonian culture, that persisted to exist in certain domains and areas until the 2nd c. AD».^[43]

Under the Parthian Empire, Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban centre and the old Babylonian culture diminished.^[44] The nearby and newer imperial capitals cities of Seleucia and later Ctesiphon overshadowed the ancient city and became the seats of power in the region.^[45] Babylon was still important in the first century or so of Parthian rule,^[44] and cuneiform tablets continued to recognise the rule of the Parthian kings.^[46] The standard title formula applied to the Parthian kings in Babylonian documents was «ar-ša-kâ lugal.lugal.meš» (Aršakâ šar šarrāni, «Arsaces, king of kings»).^[47] Several tablets from the Parthian period also in their date formulae mention the queen of the incumbent Parthian king, alongside the king, the first time women were officially recognised as monarchs of Babylon.^[48] The few documents that survive from Babylon in the Parthian period indicate a growing sense of alarm and alienation in Babylon as the Parthian kings were mostly absent from the city and the Babylonians noticed their culture slowly slipping away.^[49]

When exactly Babylon was abandoned is unclear. The Roman author Pliny the Elder wrote in AD 50 that proximity to Seleucia had turned Babylon into a «barren waste» and during their campaigns in the east, Roman emperors Trajan (in AD 115) and Septimius Severus (in AD 199) supposedly found the city destroyed and deserted. Archaeological evidence and the writings of Abba Arikha (c. AD 219) indicate that at least the temples of Babylon may still have been active in the early 3rd century.^[45] If any remnants of the old Babylonian culture still existed at that point, they would have been decisively wiped out as the result of religious reforms in the early Sasanian Empire c. AD 230.^[50]

Due to a shortage of sources, and the timing of Babylon’s abandonment being unknown, the last ruler recognised by the Babylonians as king is not known. The latest known cuneiform tablet is W22340a, found at Uruk and dated to AD 79/80. The tablet preserves the word LUGAL (king), indicating that the Babylonians by this point still recognised a king.^[51] At this time, Babylonia was ruled by the Parthian rival king (i. e. usurper) Artabanus III.^[52] Modern historians are divided on where the line of monarchs ends. Spar and Lambert (2005) did not include any rulers beyond the first century AD in their list of kings recognised by the Babylonians,^[36] but Beaulieu (2018) considered ‘Dynasty XIV of Babylon’ (his designation for the Parthians as rulers of the city) to have lasted until the end of Parthian rule of Babylonia in the early 3rd century AD.^[53]

Names in cuneiform[edit]

The list below includes the names of all the kings in Akkadian, as well as how the Akkadian names were rendered in cuneiform signs. Up until the reign of Burnaburiash II (r. c. 1359–1333 BC) of the Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III), Sumerian was the dominant language for use in inscriptions and official documents, with Akkadian eclipsing it under the reign of Kurigalzu II (r. c. 1332–1308 BC), and thereafter replacing Sumerian in inscriptions and documents.^[54] For consistency purposes, and because several kings and their names are known only from king lists,^[55] which were written in Akkadian centuries after Burnaburiash II’s reign, this list solely uses Akkadian, rather than Sumerian, for the royal names, though this is anachronistic for rulers before Burnaburiash II.

It is not uncommon for there to be several different spellings of the same name in Akkadian, even when referring to the same individual.^[56]^[57] To examplify this, the table below presents two ways the name of Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 BC) was spelt in Akkadian (Nabû-kudurri-uṣur). The list of kings below uses more concise spellings when possible, primarily based on the renditions of names in date formulae and king lists.

Concise spelling (king lists)	Elaborate spelling (building inscriptions)
Nabû — kudurri — uṣur^[58]	Na — bi — um — ku — du — ur — ri — u — ṣu — ur^[59]

Even if the same spelling is used, there were also several different scripts of cuneiform signs: a name, even if spelt the same, looks considerably different in Old Babylonian signs compared to Neo-Babylonian signs or Neo-Assyrian signs.^[60] The table below presents different variants, depending on the signs used, of the name Antiochus in Akkadian (Antiʾukusu). The list of kings below uses Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian signs, given that those scripts are the signs primarily used in the king lists.

Date formulae (Neo-Babylonian signs)	Antiochus cylinder^[b]	Antiochus cylinder (Neo-Babylonian signs)	Antiochus cylinder (Neo-Assyrian signs)
An — ti — ʾ — i — ku — su^[62]	An — ti — ʾ — ku — us^[63]	An — ti — ʾ — ku — us^[64]	An — ti — ʾ — ku — us^[64]

Dynasty I (Amorite), 1894–1595 BC[edit]

Per BKLb, the native name for this dynasty was simply palû Babili (‘dynasty of Babylon’).^[65] To differentiate it from the other dynasties that later ruled Babylon, modern historians often refer to this dynasty as the ‘First Dynasty of Babylon’.^[65] Some historians refer to this dynasty as the ‘Amorite dynasty’^[66] on account of the kings being of Amorite descent.^[67] While the king list gives a regnal length of 31 years for the final king, Samsu-Ditana, the destruction layer at Babylon is dated to his 26th year and no later sources have been found.^[68]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Sumu-abum^[c]	Šumu-abum	c. 1894 BC	c. 1881 BC	First king of Babylon in BKLa and BKLb	^[70]
Sumu-la-El	Šumu-la-El	c. 1880 BC	c. 1845 BC	Unclear succession	^[70]
Sabium	Sabūm	c. 1844 BC	c. 1831 BC	Son of Sumu-la-El	^[70]
Apil-Sin	Apil-Sîn	c. 1830 BC	c. 1813 BC	Son of Sabium	^[70]
Sin-Muballit	Sîn-Muballit	c. 1812 BC	c. 1793 BC	Son of Apil-Sin	^[70]
Hammurabi	Ḫammu-rāpi	c. 1792 BC	c. 1750 BC	Son of Sin-Muballit	^[70]
Samsu-iluna	Šamšu-iluna	c. 1749 BC	c. 1712 BC	Son of Hammurabi	^[70]
Abi-Eshuh	Abī-Ešuḫ	c. 1711 BC	c. 1684 BC	Son of Samsu-iluna	^[70]
Ammi-Ditana	Ammi-ditāna	c. 1683 BC	c. 1647 BC	Son of Abi-Eshuh	^[70]
Ammi-Saduqa	Ammi-Saduqa	c. 1646 BC	c. 1626 BC	Son of Ammi-Ditana	^[70]
Samsu-Ditana	Šamšu-ditāna	c. 1625 BC	c. 1595 BC	Son of Ammi-Saduqa	^[70]

Dynasty II (1st Sealand), 1725–1475 BC[edit]

Both BKLa and BKLb refer to this dynasty as palû Urukug (‘dynasty of Urukug’). Presumably, the city of Urukug was the dynasty’s point of origin. Some literary sources refer to some of the kings of this dynasty as ‘kings of the Sealand’, and thus modern historians refer to it as a dynasty of the Sealand. The designation as the first Sealand dynasty differentiates it from Dynasty V, which the Babylonians actually referred to as a ‘dynasty of the Sealand’.^[65] This dynasty overlaps with Dynasty I and Dynasty III, with these kings actually ruling the region south of Babylon (the Sealand) rather than Babylon itself.^[22] For instance, the king Gulkishar of this dynasty was actually a contemporary of Dynasty I’s last king, Samsu-Ditana.^[71] It is possible that the dynasty was included in Babylon’s dynastic history by later scribes either because it controlled Babylon for a time, because it controlled or strongly influenced parts of Babylonia or because it was the most stable power of its time in Babylonia.^[72] The dates listed below are highly uncertain, and follow the timespan listed for the dynasty in Beaulieu (2018), c. 1725–1475 BC, with the individual dates based the lengths of the reigns of the kings, also as given by Beaulieu (2018).^[73]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Ilum-ma-ili	Ilum-ma-ilī	c. 1725 BC	??	Unclear succession	^[74]
Itti-ili-nibi	Itti-ili-nībī	??	Unclear succession	^[74]
…^[d]	— ^[e]	??	Unclear succession	^[75]
Damqi-ilishu	Damqi-ilišu	[26 years(?)]	Unclear succession	^[74]
Ishkibal	Iškibal	[15 years]	Unclear succession	^[74]
Shushushi	Šušši	[24 years]	Brother of Ishkibal	^[74]
Gulkishar	Gulkišar	[55 years]	Unclear succession	^[74]
^mDIŠ-U-EN^[f]	[Uncertain reading]	??	Unclear succession	^[74]
Peshgaldaramesh	Pešgaldarameš	c. 1599 BC	c. 1549 BC	Son of Gulkishar	^[74]
Ayadaragalama	Ayadaragalama	c. 1548 BC	c. 1520 BC	Son of Peshgaldaramesh	^[74]
Akurduana	Akurduana	c. 1519 BC	c. 1493 BC	Unclear succession	^[74]
Melamkurkurra	Melamkurkurra	c. 1492 BC	c. 1485 BC	Unclear succession	^[74]
Ea-gamil	Ea-gamil	c. 1484 BC	c. 1475 BC	Unclear succession	^[74]

Dynasty III (Kassite), 1729–1155 BC[edit]

The entry for this dynasty’s name in BKLa is lost, but other Babylonian sources refer to it as palû Kasshi (‘dynasty of the Kassites’).^[76] The reconstruction of the sequence and names of the early rulers of this dyansty, the kings before Karaindash, is difficult and controversial. The king lists are damaged at this point and the preserved portions seem to contradict each other: for instance, BKLa has a king in-between Kashtiliash I and Abi-Rattash, omitted in the Synchronistic King List, whereas the Synchronistic King List includes Kashtiliash II, omitted in BKLa, between Abi-Rattash and Urzigurumash. It also seems probable that the earliest kings ascribed to this dynasty in king lists did not actually rule Babylon, but were added as they were ancestors of the later rulers.^[77] Babylonia was not fully consolidated and reunified until the reign of Ulamburiash, who defeated Ea-gamil, the last king of the first Sealand dynasty.^[71]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Gandash	Gandaš	c. 1729 BC	c. 1704 BC	Unclear succession	^[78]
Agum I	Agum	c. 1703 BC	c. 1682 BC	Son of Gandash	^[78]
Kashtiliash I	Kaštiliašu	c. 1681 BC	c. 1660 BC	Son of Agum I	^[78]
…^[g]	— ^[h]	c. 1659 BC	??	Unclear succession	^[78]
Abi-Rattash	Abi-Rattaš	??	Son of Kashtiliash I	^[80]
Kashtiliash II	Kaštiliašu	??	Unclear succession	^[80]
Urzigurumash	Ur-zigurumaš	??	Descendant of Abi-Rattash (?)^[i]	^[80]
Agum II^[j]	Agum-Kakrime	??	Son of Urzigurumash	^[80]
Harba-Shipak	Ḫarba-Šipak	??	Unclear succession	^[80]
Shipta’ulzi	Šipta’ulzi	??	Unclear succession	^[80]
…^[k]	— ^[l]	??	Unclear succession	^[82]
Burnaburiash I	Burna-Buriaš	c. 1530 BC	c. 1500 BC	Unclear succession, earliest Kassite ruler confidently attested as ruling Babylon itself	^[83]
Ulamburiash	Ulam-Buriaš	[c. 1475 BC]	Son of Burnaburiash I (?), reunified Babylonia through defeating Ea-gamil, the last king of the first Sealand dynasty	^[84]
Kashtiliash III	Kaštiliašu	??	Son of Burnaburiash I (?)	^[80]
Agum III	Agum	??	Son of Kashtiliash III	^[80]
Kadashman-Sah^[m]	Kadašman-Šaḥ	??	Unclear succession, co-ruler with Agum III?	^[86]
Karaindash	Karaindaš	[c. 1415 BC]	Unclear succession	^[80]
Kadashman-Harbe I	Kadašman-Ḫarbe	[c. 1400 BC]	Son of Karaindash (?)	^[87]
Kurigalzu I	Kuri-Galzu	??	Son of Kadashman-harbe I	^[80]
Kadashman-Enlil I	Kadašman-Enlil	c. 1374 BC	c. 1360 BC	Son of Kurigalzu I (?)^[n]	^[80]
Burnaburiash II	Burna-Buriaš	c. 1359 BC	c. 1333 BC	Son of Kadashman-Enlil I (?)	^[80]
Kara-hardash	Kara-ḫardaš	c. 1333 BC	c. 1333 BC	Son of Burnaburiash II (?)	^[80]
Nazi-Bugash	Nazi-Bugaš	c. 1333 BC	c. 1333 BC	Usurper, unrelated to other kings	^[80]
Kurigalzu II	Kuri-Galzu	c. 1332 BC	c. 1308 BC	Son of Burnaburiash II	^[80]
Nazi-Maruttash	Nazi-Maruttaš	c. 1307 BC	c. 1282 BC	Son of Kurigalzu II	^[80]
Kadashman-Turgu	Kadašman-Turgu	c. 1281 BC	c. 1264 BC	Son of Nazi-Maruttash	^[80]
Kadashman-Enlil II	Kadašman-Enlil	c. 1263 BC	c. 1255 BC	Son of Kadashman-Turgu	^[80]
Kudur-Enlil	Kudur-Enlil	c. 1254 BC	c. 1246 BC	Son of Kadashman-Enlil II	^[80]
Shagarakti-Shuriash	Šagarakti-Šuriaš	c. 1245 BC	c. 1233 BC	Son of Kudur-Enlil	^[80]
Kashtiliash IV	Kaštiliašu	c. 1232 BC	c. 1225 BC	Son of Shagarakti-Shuriash	^[80]
Enlil-nadin-shumi^[o]	Enlil-nādin-šumi	c. 1224 BC	c. 1224 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Kadashman-Harbe II^[o]	Kadašman-Ḫarbe	c. 1223 BC	c. 1223 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Adad-shuma-iddina^[o]	Adad-šuma-iddina	c. 1222 BC	c. 1217 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Adad-shuma-usur	Adad-šuma-uṣur	c. 1216 BC	c. 1187 BC	Son of Kashtiliash IV (?)	^[80]
Meli-Shipak	Meli-Šipak	c. 1186 BC	c. 1172 BC	Son of Adad-shuma-usur	^[80]
Marduk-apla-iddina I	Marduk-apla-iddina	c. 1171 BC	c. 1159 BC	Son of Meli-Shipak	^[80]
Zababa-shuma-iddin	Zababa-šuma-iddina	c. 1158 BC	c. 1158 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Enlil-nadin-ahi	Enlil-nādin-aḫe	c. 1157 BC	c. 1155 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]

Dynasty IV (2nd Isin), 1153–1022 BC[edit]

Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû Ishin (‘dynasty of Isin’). Presumably, the city of Isin was the dynasty’s point of origin. Modern historians refer to this dynasty as the second dynasty of Isin to differentiate it from the ancient Sumerian dynasty of Isin.^[65] Previous scholarship assumed that the first king of this dynasty, Marduk-kabit-ahheshu, ruled for the first years of his reign concurrently with the last Kassite king, but recent research suggests that this was not the case. This list follows the revised chronology of the kings of this dynasty, per Beaulieu (2018), which also means revising the dates of subsequent dynasties.^[90]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu	Marduk-kabit-aḫḫēšu	c. 1153 BC	c. 1136 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]
Itti-Marduk-balatu	Itti-Marduk-balāṭu	c. 1135 BC	c. 1128 BC	Son of Marduk-kabit-ahheshu	^[91]
Ninurta-nadin-shumi	Ninurta-nādin-šumi	c. 1127 BC	c. 1122 BC	Relative of Itti-Marduk-balatu (?)^[p]	^[91]
Nebuchadnezzar I	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	c. 1121 BC	c. 1100 BC	Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi	^[91]
Enlil-nadin-apli	Enlil-nādin-apli	c. 1099 BC	c. 1096 BC	Son of Nebuchadnezzar I	^[91]
Marduk-nadin-ahhe	Marduk-nādin-aḫḫē	c. 1095 BC	c. 1078 BC	Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi, usurped the throne from Enlil-nadin-apli	^[91]
Marduk-shapik-zeri	Marduk-šāpik-zēri	c. 1077 BC	c. 1065 BC	Son of Marduk-nadin-ahhe (?)^[q]	^[91]
Adad-apla-iddina	Adad-apla-iddina	c. 1064 BC	c. 1043 BC	Usurper, unrelated to previous kings	^[94]
Marduk-ahhe-eriba	Marduk-aḫḫē-erība	c. 1042 BC	c. 1042 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]
Marduk-zer-X	Marduk-zēra-[—]^[r]	c. 1041 BC	c. 1030 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]
Nabu-shum-libur	Nabû-šumu-libūr	c. 1029 BC	c. 1022 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]

Dynasty V (2nd Sealand), 1021–1001 BC[edit]

Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû tamti (‘dynasty of the Sealand’). Modern historians call it the second Sealand dynasty in order to distinguish it from Dynasty II.^[65]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Simbar-shipak	Simbar-Šipak	c. 1021 BC	c. 1004 BC	Probably of Kassite descent, unclear succession	^[96]
Ea-mukin-zeri	Ea-mukin-zēri	c. 1004 BC	c. 1004 BC	Probably of Kassite descent (Bit-Hashmar clan), usurped the throne from Simbar-Shipak	^[96]
Kashshu-nadin-ahi	Kaššu-nādin-aḫi	c. 1003 BC	c. 1001 BC	Probably of Kassite descent, son of Simbar-shipak (?)	^[96]

Dynasty VI (Bazi), 1000–981 BC[edit]

BKLa refers to this dynasty as palû Bazu (‘dynasty of Baz’) and the Dynastic Chronicle calls it palû Bīt-Bazi (‘dynasty of Bit-Bazi’). The Bit-Bazi were a clan attested already in the Kassite period. It is likely that the dynasty derives its name either from the city of Baz, or from descent from Bazi, the legendary founder of that city.^[97]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Eulmash-shakin-shumi	Eulmaš-šākin-šumi	c. 1000 BC	c. 984 BC	Possibly of Kassite descent (Bit-Bazi clan), unclear succession	^[96]
Ninurta-kudurri-usur I	Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur	c. 983 BC	c. 981 BC	Possibly of Kassite descent (Bit-Bazi clan), unclear succession	^[96]
Shirikti-shuqamuna	Širikti-šuqamuna	c. 981 BC	c. 981 BC	Possibly of Kassite descent (Bit-Bazi clan), brother of Ninurta-kudurri-usur I	^[96]

Dynasty VII (Elamite), 980–975 BC[edit]

BKLa dynastically separates Mar-biti-apla-usur from other kings with horizontal lines, marking him as belonging to a dynasty of his own. The Dynastic Chronicle also groups him by himself, and refers to his dynasty (containing only him) as the palû Elamtu (‘dynasty of Elam’).^[98]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Mar-biti-apla-usur	Mār-bīti-apla-uṣur	c. 980 BC	c. 975 BC	Described as having Elamite ancestry, unclear succession	^[96]

Dynasty VIII (E), 974–732 BC[edit]

Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû E (‘dynasty of E’). The meaning of ‘E’ is not clear, but it is likely a reference to the city of Babylon, meaning that the name should be interpreted as ‘dynasty of Babylon’. The time of the dynasty of E was a time of great instability and the unrelated kings grouped together under this dynasty even belonged to completely different ethnic groups. Another Babylonian historical work, the Dynastic Chronicle (though it is preserved only fragmentarily), breaks this dynasty up into a succession of brief, smaller, dynasties.^[99]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Nabu-mukin-apli	Nabû-mukin-apli	c. 974 BC	c. 939 BC	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II	Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur	c. 939 BC	c. 939 BC	Babylonian, son of Nabu-mukin-apli	^[100]
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina	Mār-bῑti-aḫḫē-idinna	c. 938 BC	??	Babylonian, son of Nabu-mukin-apli	^[100]
Shamash-mudammiq	Šamaš-mudammiq	??	c. 901 BC^[s]	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-shuma-ukin I	Nabû-šuma-ukin	c. 900 BC^[s]	c. 887 BC^[t]	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-apla-iddina	Nabû-apla-iddina	c. 886 BC^[t]	c. 853 BC^[t]	Babylonian, son of Nabu-shuma-ukin I	^[100]
Marduk-zakir-shumi I	Marduk-zâkir-šumi	c. 852 BC^[t]^[u]	c. 825 BC^[u]	Babylonian, son of Nabu-apla-iddina	^[100]
Marduk-balassu-iqbi	Marduk-balāssu-iqbi	c. 824 BC^[u]	813 BC^[v]	Babylonian, son of Marduk-zakir-shumi I	^[100]
Baba-aha-iddina	Bāba-aḫa-iddina	813 BC^[v]	812 BC^[v]	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Babylonian interregnum (at least four years)^[w]^[x]
Ninurta-apla-X	Ninurta-apla-[—]^[y]	??	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Marduk-bel-zeri	Marduk-bēl-zēri	??	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Marduk-apla-usur	Marduk-apla-uṣur	??	c. 769 BC^[z]	Chaldean chief of an uncertain tribe, unclear succession	^[100]
Eriba-Marduk	Erība-Marduk	c. 769 BC^[z]	c. 760 BC^[z]	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-shuma-ishkun	Nabû-šuma-iškun	c. 760 BC^[z]	748 BC	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Dakkuri tribe, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabonassar	Nabû-nāṣir	748 BC	734 BC	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-nadin-zeri	Nabû-nādin-zēri	734 BC	732 BC	Babylonian, son of Nabonassar	^[100]
Nabu-shuma-ukin II	Nabû-šuma-ukin	732 BC	732 BC	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]

note: Babylonian King List A records the names of 17 kings of the dynasty of E, but it states afterwards that the dynasty comprised 22 kings. The discrepancy might be explainable as a scribal error, but it is also possible that there were further kings in the sequence. The list is broken at critical points, and it is possible that five additional kings, whose names thus do not survive, could be inserted between the end of the Babylonian interregnum and the reign of Ninurta-apla-X.^[107] Lists of Babylonian rulers by modern historians tend to list Ninurta-apla-X as the first king to rule after Baba-aha-iddina’s deposition.^[100]

Dynasty IX (Assyrian), 732–626 BC[edit]

‘Dynasty IX’ is used to, broadly speaking, refer to the rulers of Babylonia during the time it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including Assyrian kings of both the Adaside dynasty and the subsequent Sargonid dynasty, as well as various non-dynastic vassal and rebel kings. They are often grouped together as a dynasty by modern scholars as BKLa does not use lines to separate the rulers, used elsewhere in the list to separate dynasties.^[22] BKLa also assigns individual dynastic labels to some of the kings, though thus not in the same fashion as is done for the more concrete earlier dynasties.^[22] The palê designation associated with each king (they are recorded in the list up until Mushezib-Marduk) is included in the table below and follows Fales (2014).^[108]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	palê	Succession	Ref
Nabu-mukin-zeri	Nabû-mukin-zēri	732 BC	729 BC	palê Šapî ‘Dynasty of Shapi’	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Amukkani tribe, usurped the throne	^[109]

Tiglath-Pileser III	Tukultī-apil-Ešarra	729 BC	727 BC	palê Baltil ‘Dynasty of [Assur]’	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — conquered Babylon	^[109]
Shalmaneser V	Salmānu-ašarēd	727 BC	722 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Tiglath-Pileser III	^[109]

Marduk-apla-iddina II (First reign)	Marduk-apla-iddina	722 BC	710 BC	palê Tamti ‘Dynasty of the Sealand’	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe, proclaimed king upon Shalmaneser V’s death	^[109]

Sargon II	Šarru-kīn	710 BC	705 BC	palê Ḫabigal ‘Dynasty of [Hanigalbat]’	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Tiglath-Pileser III (?)	^[109]
Sennacherib (First reign)	Sîn-ahhe-erība	705 BC	703 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Sargon II	^[109]

Marduk-zakir-shumi II	Marduk-zâkir-šumi	703 BC	703 BC	A Arad-Ea ‘Son [descendant] of Arad-Ea’	Babylonian rebel of the Arad-Ea family, rebel king	^[109]

Marduk-apla-iddina II (Second reign)	Marduk-apla-iddina	703 BC	703 BC	ERÍN Ḫabi ‘Soldier of [Hanigalbat?]’	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe, retook the throne	^[109]

Bel-ibni	Bel-ibni	703 BC	700 BC	palê E ‘Dynasty of E’	Babylonian vassal king of the Rab-bānî family, appointed by Sennacherib	^[109]

Ashur-nadin-shumi	Aššur-nādin-šumi	700 BC	694 BC	palê Ḫabigal ‘Dynasty of [Hanigalbat]’	Son of Sennacherib, appointed as vassal king by his father	^[109]

Nergal-ushezib	Nergal-ušezib	694 BC	693 BC	palê E ‘Dynasty of E’	Babylonian rebel of the Gaḫal kin family, rebel king	^[109]
Mushezib-Marduk	Mušezib-Marduk	693 BC	689 BC	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Dakkuri tribe, rebel king	^[109]

Sennacherib^[aa] (Second reign)	Sîn-ahhe-erība	689 BC	20 October 681 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — retook Babylon	^[113]
Esarhaddon	Aššur-aḫa-iddina	December 681 BC	1 November 669 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Sennacherib	^[114]
Ashurbanipal^[ab] (First reign)	Aššur-bāni-apli	1 November 669 BC	March 668 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Esarhaddon	^[110]
Shamash-shum-ukin	Šamaš-šuma-ukin	March 668 BC	648 BC	Son of Esarhaddon, designated by his father as heir to Babylon, invested as vassal king by Ashurbanipal	^[110]
Ashurbanipal^[ac] (Second reign)	Aššur-bāni-apli	648 BC	646 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — retook Babylon after rebellion by Shamash-shum-ukin	^[116]
Kandalanu	Kandalānu	647 BC	627 BC	Appointed as vassal king by Ashurbanipal	^[110]
Sin-shumu-lishir^[ad]	Sîn-šumu-līšir	626 BC	626 BC	Usurper in the Neo-Assyrian Empire — recognised in Babylonia	^[110]
Sinsharishkun^[ad]	Sîn-šar-iškun	626 BC	626 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Ashurbanipal	^[110]

Dynasty X (Chaldean), 626–539 BC[edit]

The native name for this dynasty does not appear in any sources, as the kings of Dynasty X are only listed in king lists made during the Hellenistic period, when the concept of dynasties ceased being used by Babylonians chronographers to describe Babylonian history. Modern historians typically refer to the dynasty as the ‘Neo-Babylonian dynasty’, as these kings ruled the Neo-Babylonian Empire, or the ‘Chaldean dynasty’, after the presumed ethnic origin of the royal line.^[22] The Dynastic Chronicle, a later document, refers to Nabonidus as the founder and only king of the ‘dynasty of Harran’ (palê Ḫarran), and may also indicate a dynastic change with Neriglissar’s accession, but much of the text is fragmentary.^[118]^[119]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Nabopolassar	Nabû-apla-uṣur	22/23 November 626 BC	July 605 BC	Babylonian rebel, defeated Sinsharishkun	^[120]
Nebuchadnezzar II	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	August 605 BC	7 October 562 BC	Son of Nabopolassar	^[120]
Amel-Marduk	Amēl-Marduk	7 October 562 BC	August 560 BC	Son of Nebuchadnezzar II	^[120]

Neriglissar	Nergal-šar-uṣur	August 560 BC	April 556 BC	Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II, usurped the throne	^[120]
Labashi-Marduk	Lâbâši-Marduk	April 556 BC	June 556 BC	Son of Neriglissar	^[120]

Nabonidus	Nabû-naʾid	25 May 556 BC	13 October 539 BC	Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II (?), usurped the throne	^[121]

Babylon under foreign rule, 539 BC – AD 224[edit]

The concept of dynasties ceased being used in king-lists made after the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, meaning that the native Babylonian designations for the ruling dynasties of the foreign empires that succeeded the Chaldean kings are unknown.^[22]

Dynasty XI (Achaemenid), 539–331 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Cyrus II the Great	Kuraš	29 October 539 BC	August 530 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — conquered Babylon	^[122]
Cambyses II	Kambuzīa	August 530 BC	April 522 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Cyrus II	^[122]
Bardiya	Barzia	April/May 522 BC	29 September 522 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Cyrus II or an impostor	^[122]

Nebuchadnezzar III	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	3 October 522 BC	December 522 BC	Babylonian rebel of the Zazakku family, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus	^[123]

Darius I the Great (First reign)	Dariamuš	December 522 BC	25 August 521 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — distant relative of Cyrus II	^[122]

Nebuchadnezzar IV	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	25 August 521 BC	27 November 521 BC	Babylonian rebel of Armenian descent, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus	^[124]

Darius I the Great (Second reign)	Dariamuš	27 November 521 BC	November 486 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — retook Babylon	^[122]
Xerxes I the Great (First reign)	Aḥšiaršu	November 486 BC	July 484 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Darius I	^[122]

Shamash-eriba	Šamaš-eriba	July 484 BC	October 484 BC	Babylonian rebel	^[125]
Bel-shimanni	Bêl-šimânni	July 484 BC	August 484 BC	Babylonian rebel	^[125]

Xerxes I the Great (Second reign)	Aḥšiaršu	October 484 BC	465 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — retook Babylon	^[122]
Artaxerxes I	Artakšatsu	465 BC	December 424 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Xerxes I	^[122]
Xerxes II	— ^[ae]	424 BC	424 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Artaxerxes I	^[122]
Sogdianus	— ^[ae]	424 BC	423 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I	^[122]
Darius II	Dariamuš	February 423 BC	c. April 404 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I	^[122]
Artaxerxes II	Artakšatsu	c. April 404 BC	359/358 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Darius II	^[122]
Artaxerxes III	Artakšatsu	359/358 BC	338 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Artaxerxes II	^[122]
Artaxerxes IV	Artakšatsu	338 BC	336 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Artaxerxes III	^[122]

Nidin-Bel	Nidin-Bêl	336 BC	336/335 BC	Babylonian rebel (?), attested only in the Uruk King List, alternatively a scribal error	^[126]

Darius III	Dariamuš	336/335 BC	October 331 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — grandson of Artaxerxes II	^[122]

Dynasty XII (Argead), 331–305 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Alexander III the Great	Aliksandar	October 331 BC	11 June 323 BC	King of Macedon — conquered the Achaemenid Empire	^[127]
Philip III Arrhidaeus	Pilipsu	11 June 323 BC	317 BC^[af]	King of Macedon — brother of Alexander III	^[129]

Antigonus I Monophthalmus^[ag]	Antigunusu	317 BC	309/308 BC	King of the Antigonid Empire — general (Diadochus) of Alexander III	^[132]

Alexander IV	Aliksandar	316 BC	310 BC^[ah]	King of Macedon — son of Alexander III	^[134]

Dynasty XIII (Seleucid), 305–141 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Seleucus I Nicator	Siluku	305 BC^[ai]	September 281 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — general (Diadochus) of Alexander III	^[134]
Antiochus I Soter	Antiʾukusu	294 BC^[aj]	2 June 261 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus I	^[136]
Seleucus^[ak]	Siluku	281 BC	266 BC	Joint-king of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus I	^[137]
Antiochus II Theos	Antiʾukusu	266 BC^[aj]	July 246 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus I	^[136]
Seleucus II Callinicus	Siluku	July 246 BC	225 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus II	^[136]
Seleucus III Ceraunus	Siluku	225 BC	223 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus II	^[138]
Antiochus III the Great	Antiʾukusu	223 BC	3 July 187 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus II	^[138]
Antiochus^[al]	Antiʾukusu	210 BC	192 BC	Joint-king of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus III	^[140]
Seleucus IV Philopator	Siluku	189 BC^[aj]	3 September 175 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus III	^[141]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes	Antiʾukusu	3 September 175 BC	164 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus III	^[142]
Antiochus^[al]	Antiʾukusu	175 BC	170 BC	Joint-king of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus IV	^[143]
Antiochus V Eupator	Antiʾukusu	164 BC	162 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus IV	^[144]
Demetrius I Soter (First reign)	Dimitri	c. January 161 BC^[am]	c. January 161 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus IV	^[146]

Timarchus	— ^[an]	c. January 161 BC^[ao]	c. May 161 BC^[ao]	Rebel satrap (vassal governor) under the Seleucids — captured and briefly ruled Babylonia	^[147]

Demetrius I Soter (Second reign)	Dimitri	c. May 161 BC	150 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — reconquered Babylonia	^[148]
Alexander Balas	Aliksandar	150 BC	146 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — supposedly son of Antiochus IV	^[149]
Demetrius II Nicator	Dimitri	146 BC	141 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Demetrius I	^[150]

Dynasty XIV (Arsacid), 141 BC – AD 224[edit]

note: The chronology of the Parthian kings, especially in the early period, is disputed on account of a lack of sources. The chronology here, which omits several rival kings and usurpers, primarily follows Shayegan (2011),^[151] Dąbrowa (2012)^[152] and Daryaee (2012).^[153] For alternate interpretations, see the List of Parthian monarchs.

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Mithridates I	Aršakâ^[ap]	141 BC	132 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — conquered Babylonia	^[156]
Phraates II (First reign)	Aršakâ	132 BC	July 130 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Mithridates I	^[157]
Rinnu^[aq]	Ri-[—]-nu^[ar]	132 BC	July 130 BC	Mother and regent for Phraates II, who was a minor at the time of his accession	^[157]

Antiochus VII Sidetes	Antiʾukusu	July 130 BC	November 129 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Demetrius I, conquered Babylonia	^[160]

Phraates II (Second reign)	Aršakâ	November 129 BC	128/127 BC^[as]	King of the Parthian Empire — reconquered Babylonia	^[162]
Ubulna^[at]	Ubulna	November 129 BC	128/127 BC	Unclear identity, associated with Phraates II – probably his queen	^[162]

Hyspaosines	Aspasinē	128/127 BC^[as]	November 127 BC	King of Characene — captured Babylon in the wake of Antiochus VII Sidetes’s campaign	^[163]

Artabanus I	Aršakâ	November 127 BC	124 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — brother of Mithridates I, conquered Babylonia	^[164]
Mithridates II	Aršakâ	124 BC	91 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Artabanus I	^[165]
Gotarzes I	Aršakâ	91 BC	80 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Mithridates II	^[166]
Asi’abatar^[at]	Aši’abatum	91 BC	80 BC	Wife (queen) of Gotarzes I	^[166]
Orodes I	Aršakâ	80 BC	75 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Mithridates II or Gotarzes I	^[167]
Ispubarza^[at]	Isbubarzâ	80 BC	75 BC	Sister-wife (queen) of Orodes I	^[168]
Sinatruces	Aršakâ	75 BC	69 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son or brother of Mithridates I	^[169]
Phraates III	Aršakâ	69 BC	57 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Sinatruces	^[170]
Piriustana^[at]	Piriustanâ	69 BC	??	Wife (queen) of Phraates III	^[171]
Teleuniqe^[at]	Ṭeleuniqê	??	57 BC	Wife (queen) of Phraates III	^[171]
Orodes II	Aršakâ	57 BC	38 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates III	^[172]
Phraates IV	Aršakâ	38 BC	2 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Orodes II	^[173]
Phraates V^[au]	Aršakâ	2 BC	AD 4	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates IV	^[174]
Orodes III	Aršakâ	AD 4	AD 6	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates IV (?)	^[175]
Vonones I	Aršakâ	AD 6	AD 12	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates IV	^[176]
Artabanus II	Aršakâ	AD 12	AD 38	King of the Parthian Empire — grandson of Phraates IV (?)	^[177]
Vardanes I	Aršakâ	AD 38	AD 46	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Artabanus II	^[177]
Gotarzes II	Aršakâ	AD 38	AD 51	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Artabanus II	^[177]
Vonones II	Aršakâ	AD 51	AD 51	King of the Parthian Empire — grandson of Phraates IV (?)	^[178]
Vologases I	Aršakâ	AD 51	AD 78	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vonones II or Artabanus II	^[156]
Pacorus II	Aršakâ	AD 78	AD 110	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases I	^[179]
Artabanus III^[av]	Aršakâ	AD 79/80	AD 81	Rival king of the Parthian Empire (against Pacorus II) — son of Vologases I	^[180]
Osroes I	— ^[aw]	AD 109	AD 129	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Pacorus II	^[181]
Vologases III	— ^[aw]	AD 110	AD 147	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Pacorus II	^[182]
Parthamaspates	— ^[aw]	AD 116	AD 117	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Osroes I	^[183]
Vologases IV	— ^[aw]	AD 147	AD 191	King of the Parthian Empire — grandson of Pacorus II	^[183]
Vologases V	— ^[aw]	AD 191	AD 208	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases IV	^[184]
Vologases VI	— ^[aw]	AD 208	AD 216/228	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases V	^[185]
Artabanus IV	— ^[aw]	AD 216	AD 224	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases V	^[186]

Notes[edit]

^ The star of Shamash was often used as a standard in southern Mesopotamia from the Akkadian period down to the Neo-Babylonian period.^[1]
^ The Antiochus cylinder is written in Babylonian cuneiform, though with some unorthodox and strange choices of signs. Its rendition of the name Antiochus is featured here, alongside transcriptions of the same spelling of Antiochus, but with ordinary Babylonian and Assyrian signs, to illustrate the differences.^[61]
^ Sumu-abum was the first king of Babylon according to Babylonian King Lists A and B. There is no contemporary evidence for his rule in Babylon; the earliest ruler who there is textual evidence of in Babylon itself is Sin-Muballit, the fifth king according to the king lists. Sumu-abum is contemporarily attested as a ruler of the cities Dilbat, Sippar and Kisurra, but some evidence seems to suggest that he and Sumu-la-El (his supposed successor) were contemporaries. Later rulers of Babylon’s first dynasty referred to Sumu-la-El, rather than Sumu-abum, as the founder of their dynasty. It is possible that Sumu-abum did not rule Babylon, but for some reason was inserted in later traditions into the city’s dynastic history. Perhaps Sumu-la-El ruled Babylon as a vassal of Sumu-abum, who might have ruled a larger group of territories.^[69]
^ No king list includes a king between Itti-ili-nibi and Damqi-ilishu, and Babylonian King List A states that Dynasty II had 11 kings, speaking against the existence of this figure. The existence of an unknown king here is thus very speculative, based on the presence of the sign AŠ between lines 5 and 6 of BKLa, between Itti-ili-nibi and Damqi-ilishu, which might be a reference to a king between them, as the same sign later in the list has been seen by some scholars as evidence of an attestation of another unknown king, attested in the Synchronistic King List but unattested in other sources.^[75]
^ Name not preserved.^[75]
^ Omitted in Babylonian King Lists A and B, only being included in the Synchronistic King List. The reading of the signs making up his name is not certain.^[73] The issue derives from the poor quality early photographs of the tablet and its subsequent deteriorating condition. The presence of the sign AŠ between lines 10 and 11 of BKLa, between Gulkishar and Peshgaldaramesh might be a reference to a king between them.^[75] Given that he only appears in one source, and BKLa states that there were 11 kings of this dynasty, his existence is not certain. Perhaps he was a real king who reigned very briefly.^[75]
^ Babylonian King List A adds a king between Kashtiliash I and Abi-Rattash, but the list is damaged and the name is not preserved. The Synchronistic King List omits this figure.^[79]
^ Name not preserved.^[79]
^ One possible reading of an inscription by Agum II indicates that Abi-Rattash was an ancestor of Agum II’s father Urzigurumash.^[81]
^ As Agum II explicitly refers to Urzigurumash as his father in his own inscriptions, Beaulieu (2018) placed him as Urzigurumash’s direct successor.^[79] Chen (2020) placed him later, as the direct predecessor of Burnaburiash I.^[66]
^ There being a king between Shipta’ulzi and Burnaburiash I is indicated by both Babylonian King List A and the Synchronistic King List, but as both texts are damaged, neither list preserves the name of this ruler. Historically, the fragments left have been interpreted as suggesting that this king’s name was Agum, but this reading has been abandoned by modern scholars.^[79]
^ Name not preserved.^[79]
^ Kadashman-Sah does not appear in king lists. The only evidence of his existence are tablets that are dated to the reign of ‘Agum and Kadashman-Sah’, suggesting that he was a king, and that there was some form of co-rulership. It is possible that he was a transitional ruler with only local power.^[85]
^ There are no sources that directly indicate a familial connection between Kadashman-Enlil I and Kurigalzu I, but Kadashman-Enlil I’s presumed son, Burnaburiash II, refers to Kurigalzu I as his ancestor in a letter.^[88]
^ ^a ^b ^c Kashtiliash IV was deposed by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I c. 1225 BC. The Bablyonian Chronicles describe Tukulti-Ninurta I as destroying Babylon’s walls and incorporating the city into his empire for seven years until the Babylonians rebelled and placed Kashtiliash IV’s son, Adad-shuma-usur, on the throne. Babylonian King List A contradicts this, listing three rulers between Kashtiliash IV and Adad-shuma-usur. As the reigns of these three kings add up to just a little less than seven years, scholars have historically interpreted this to mean that these three kings were appointed vassals of Tukulti-Ninurta I. The Babylonian Chronicles seem to suggest that Adad-shuma-usur ruled in the south of Bablyonia concurrently with Tukulti-Ninurta controlling the north (and Babylon itself). Beaulieu (2018) suggests the possibility that these three kings were contemporary rivals, rather than successors of one another, and that Adad-shuma-usur did succeed Kashtiliash IV directly, but only in the south, and only took control of Babylon late in his reign.^[89]
^ A family link between Ninurta-nadin-shumi and his immediate predecessors cannot be proven from the sources, but the only definitely attested break in family succession to the throne in this dynasty was the accession of Adad-apla-iddina, who is explicitly designated as an usurper in the sources.^[92]
^ Marduk-shapik-zeri was once believed to be attested as Marduk-nadin-ahhe’s son, but the reading of the relevant text is uncertain–it cannot be proven, or disproven, that Marduk-shapik-zeri was Marduk-nadin-ahhe’s son.^[93] The only definitely attested break in family succession to the throne in this dynasty was the accession of Adad-apla-iddina, who is explicitly designated as an usurper in the sources.^[92]
^ The name of this king has not survived in its complete form in any source. The ‘X’ in his name was inserted by modern historians to mark the missing portion. The reading of the second element of his name, zēra, is not fully certain. According to Brinkman (1968), there are many possibilities for what the full name was (based on known Babylonian names with the same first two elements), including: Marduk-zēra-ibni, Marduk-zēra-iddina, Marduk-zēra-iqīša, Marduk-zēra-uballiṭ, Marduk-zēra-ukīn, Marduk-zēra-uṣur, Marduk-zēra-ušallim and Marduk-zēra-līšir.^[95]
^ ^a ^b Shamash-mudammiq is described as having been defeated by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari II c. 901 BC.^[101]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Beaulieu (2018) states that Nabu-apla-iddina’s 31st year as king was c. 855 BC.^[101] Chen (2020) ascribes Nabu-apla-iddina a 33-year reign.^[66]
^ ^a ^b ^c Chen (2020) ascribes Marduk-zakir-shumi I a 27-year reign.^[66]
^ ^a ^b ^c Marduk-balassu-iqbi was deposed by the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V in 813 BC. Less than a year later, in 812 BC, Shamshi-Adad deposed Marduk-balassu-iqbi’s successor, Baba-aha-iddina.^[102]
^ After Baba-aha-iddina was taken to Assyria as a captive by the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V in 812 BC, Babylonia entered into an interregnum lasting several (at least four) years, which the chronicles describe as a period when there was «no king in the land». The chief claimants to royal power in Babylonia at this time was the Assyrians. Though they did not claim the title ‘king of Babylon’, Shamshi-Adad V took the title ‘king of Sumer and Akkad’ after his victory in 812 BC and Shamshi-Adad’s son and successor, Adad-nirari III, claimed that ‘all the kings of Chaldea’ were his vassals and that he had received tribute, as well as sacrificial meals (a Babylonian royal prerogative) at Babylon. The Babylonian crown had thus, at least nominally, been taken over by the Assyrians, though as Assyria was in a weakened state its kings were unable to fully exploit the situation.^[103]
^ Some of the Chaldean tribes during this time also either claimed royal Babylonian power, or asserted their own independence. A seal from the time of the interregnum depicts the chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe (and father of the later king Eriba-Marduk), Marduk-shakin-shumi, in the traditional Babylonian royal garbs. There is also a contract tablet known that describes a weight being sent to the ‘palace of Nabu-shumu-lishir, descendant of Dakkuru’. Nabu-shumu-lishir of the Bit-Dakkuri tribe’s claim to reside in a ‘palace’ was equivalent to claiming to be a king.^[103]
^ Ninurta-apla-X is only known from Babylonian King List A, where his name is broken off and incompletely preserved. The ‘X’ in his name was inserted by modern historians to mark the missing portion.^[104]^[105] The second element of the name, apla, is not a fully certain reading.^[105] According to Brinkman (1968), the full name might have been Ninurta-apla-uṣur or something similar.^[105]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Beaulieu (2018) writes that Eriba-Marduk’s ninth and last year as king was c. 760 BC.^[106]
^ Recognising Sennacherib as the king of Babylon from 689 to 681 BC is the norm in modern lists of Babylonian kings.^[110] Babylon was destroyed at this time and many contemporary Babylonian documents, such as chronicles, refer to Sennacherb’s second reign in Babylonia as a «kingless period» without a king in the land.^[111] Babylonian King List A nevertheless includes Sennacherib as the king of this period, listing his second reign as taking place between the downfall of Mushezib-Marduk and the accession of Esarhaddon.^[112]
^ Though Shamash-shum-ukin was the legitimate successor of Esarhaddon to the Babylonian throne, appointed by his father, he was not formally invested as such until the spring after his father’s death. Lists of kings of Babylon by modern historians typically regard Ashurbanipal, Esarhaddon’s successor in Assyria, as the ruler of Babylon during this brief ‘interregnum’.^[110] The Uruk King List lists Ashurbanipal as Shamash-shum-ukin’s predecessor, but also lists him as ruling simultaneously with his brother, giving his reign as 669–647 BC.^[115] In contrast, Babylonian King List A omits Ashurbanipal entirely, listing Shamash-shum-ukin as the direct successor of Esarhaddon, and Kandalanu as the direct successor of Shamash-shum-ukin.^[112]
^ Ashurbanipal is again not recorded by the Babylonian King List A as ruler between Shamash-shum-ukin and Kandalanu,^[112] and is not recorded as such in lists by modern historians either.^[110] Ashurbanipal did however rule Babylonia from the defeat of Shamash-shum-ukin in the summer of 648 BC to Kandalanu’s appointment in 647 BC. Date formulae from Babylonia during this time are dated to Ashurbanipal’s rule, and indicate that the transfer of power to Kandalanu was gradual. Tablets were still dated to Ashurbanipal around the end of 647 BC at Borsippa, and as late as the spring of 646 BC at Dilbat. After 646 BC, tablets in Babylonia are exclusively dated to Kandalanu’s reign.^[116]
^ ^a ^b The Babylonian Chronicles describe the period between Kandalanu and Nabopolassar as a «kingless» one and some date formulae from this period are dated to «the year after Kandalanu», suggesting an interregnum. The Uruk King List records Sin-shumu-lishir and Sinsharishkun’s reigns, however,^[117] as do lists of Babylonian kings by modern historians.^[110]
^ ^a ^b Contemporary Babylonian contract tablets, as well as Babylonian king lists, omit both Xerxes II and Sogdianus, suggesting that the Babylonians viewed Darius II as Artaxerxes I’s immediate successor.^{[citation needed]}
^ Philip III Arrhidaeus died in 317 BC. Certain Babylonian documents continue to recognise him as king until 316 BC.^[128]
^ Antigonus, one of Alexander III’s former generals who took power in the eastern regions of Alexander’s empire, began issuing date formulae in his own name, rather than in the name of an official king.^[130] The Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period suggests that Antigonus’s rule was not considered legal and that he should have submitted to the rule of Alexander III’s son, Alexander IV. The list writes that «there was no king in the land» for several years and titles Antigonus as the chief of the army, rather than king.^[131] The Uruk King List includes Antigonus without comments on his status.^[115]
^ Alexander IV died in 310 BC. Certain Babylonian documents continue to recognise him as king until 305 BC, when Seleucus I Nicator became king.^[128] The Babylonians were aware that Alexander IV had died in 310 BC, but they continued to date documents to his reign posthumously for several years since there was no clear legitimate heir.^[133]
^ Seleucus I Nicator became king in 305 BC, but he retroactively dated to his accession to 311 BC.^[128] The Babylonian King List dates Seleucus I’s accession to 305/304 BC.^[130]
^ ^a ^b ^c Did not technically become senior king until his father’s death, from which his rule is counted in the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic period,^[135] but recognised as king in date formulae alongside his father from this earlier date onwards.^[128]
^ Junior ruler who never ruled in his own right, recognised as king of Babylon alongside his senior counterpart in date formulae.^[128]
^ ^a ^b Junior ruler who never ruled in his own right, recognised as king of Babylon alongside his senior counterpart in date formulae^[128] and in the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period.^[139]
^ Demetrius I Soter deposed and killed Antiochus V Eupator in 162 BC, but the last known document dated to Antiochus V’s rule at Babylon is from 11 January 161 BC. It is possible that it took several weeks for the news of Antiochus V’s death to reach the eastern provinces.^[145]
^ No known cuneiform tablets record Timarchus’s brief rule in Babylonia.^[147]
^ ^a ^b Given that tablets dating to Antiochus V Eupator are known from January 161 BC, and the earliest known tablet dated to Demetrius I is from 14 May 161 BC, Timarchus’s brief control of Babylon must have transpired at some point between these dates.^[145]
^ Babylonian documents from the period of Parthian rule refer to virtually all Parthian kings as Arshaka, Arshakan, Arshakamma, or some other Akkadian variant of the name Arsaces.^[154] This list uses the spelling Aršakâ per Spar & Lambert (2005).^[155]
Arsaces was used as the regnal name by all Parthian kings, making it more similar to an official title, such as the Roman Caesar, than a name. If there was a period of civil war or rivalry, i.e. in times where there were multiple Arsaces at the same time and clarification was needed, Babylonian documents sometimes employed the personal names of the kings.^[154] The practice of all Parthian kings assuming Arsaces as their regnal name complicates establishing a chronology of rulers,^[154]^[128] which mainly has to follow evidence from coinage.^[154]
^ Though formally only a regent during the minority of her son, a contemporary Babylonian tablet counts Rinnu as a monarch. The date formula of this tablet reads ‘Arshak and Ri-[in(?)]-nu, his mother, kings’.^[158]
^ Name incompletely preserved (middle sign missing).^[159]
^ ^a ^b Phraates II’s rule in Babylon is last attested on 17 May 128 BC. Hyspaosines is first attested as ruler on 30/31 May 127 BC.^[161]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Queen consort, and thus not formally a monarch, but recorded together with her husband as ruler in Babylonian date formulae.^[36]
^ Phraates V’s mother, Musa, who ruled with him as co-ruler, is not recorded as a monarch in any known Babylonian tablets.^[36]
^ The latest known datable Akkadian cuneiform tablet is W22340a, found at Uruk and dated to AD 79/80. The tablet preserves the word LUGAL (king), indicating that the Babylonians by this point still recognised a king.^[51] The ruler of Babylonia at this point in time was the Parthian rival king (i. e. usurper) Artabanus III, noted by historians as having had support for his rule in Babylonia, but not much support elsewhere in the Parthian Empire.^[52]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Although the late Parthian kings would presumably have been referred to as Aršákā, like their predecessors, no cuneiform records are known from beyond AD 79/80.^[51]

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^ Chen 2020, pp. 1–2.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 69.
^ ^a ^b Beaulieu 2018, p. 131.
^ Boivin 2018, p. 46.
^ ^a ^b Beaulieu 2018, p. 129.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, pp. 129–130.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Boivin 2018, p. 37.
^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 10–13, 154–155, 176–178.
^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 127–128.
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^ Brinkman 1968, p. 119.
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^ Brinkman 1968, p. 146.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 177.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 178.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 184.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 186.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 195.
^ Brinkman 1973, p. 95.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fales 2014, p. 206.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 195; Radner 2003, p. 166.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 195; Fales 2012, p. 135.
^ ^a ^b Lendering 2005.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 223.
^ Waerzeggers 2015, p. 183.
^ Thomas 2014, p. 137.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 220; Parker & Dubberstein 1942, pp. 9–11.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Beaulieu 2018, p. 247; Parker & Dubberstein 1942, pp. 11–17.
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^ ^a ^b Boiy 2011, p. 3.
^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 204.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxi; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 204; Bertin 1891, p. 52.
^ Boiy 2011, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 205.
^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 206.
^ ^a ^b ^c Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 206.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 207; Mittag 2008, p. 50.
^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 207.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 207.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 208.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, pp. 208–209; Mittag 2008, p. 51.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, pp. 208–209; Gera 1998, p. 110.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209; Scolnic 2014, p. 5.
^ ^a ^b Houghton 1979, p. 215–216.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209; Scolnic 2014, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b Houghton 1979, pp. 213–217; Boiy 2004, pp. 164–165.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Houghton 1979, pp. 213–217; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209; Mittag 2008, p. 51.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209.
^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 229–239.
^ Dąbrowa 2012, pp. 169–176.
^ Daryaee 2012, pp. 391–392.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Olmstead 1937, p. 14.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xlii.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 57.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Shayegan 2011, p. 123.
^ Olmstead 1937, p. 13.
^ Shayegan 2011, p. 230.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Shayegan 2011, pp. 110–111; Shayegan 2011, p. 123.
^ Shayegan 2011, p. 111.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Shayegan 2011, pp. 110–111; Shayegan 2011, p. 123.
^ Oelsner 2014, p. 301; Shayegan 2011, pp. 110–111.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Daryaee 2012, p. 391.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 35.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Lewy 1944, p. 202.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Lewy 1944, p. 203; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 36.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Lewy 1944, p. 203.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, pp. 36–37.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 40.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Shayegan 2011, p. 235.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 41.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 43.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, pp. 45–46.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 48; Daryaee 2012, p. 391.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 48.
^ ^a ^b ^c Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 49.
^ Daryaee 2012, pp. 391–392; Olbrycht 2016, p. 24.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 58.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Schippmann 1986, pp. 647–650.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Ellerbrock 2021, pp. 60–61.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Dąbrowa 2012, p. 176.
^ ^a ^b Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 61.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Patterson 2013, pp. 180–181.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 63.
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Источник

King of Babylon
šakkanakki Bābili šar Bābili
Stylised version of the star of Shamash^[a]

Last native king Nabonidus 25 May 556 BC – 13 October 539 BC

Details
First monarch	Sumu-abum
Last monarch	Nabonidus (last native king) Shamash-eriba or Nidin-Bel (last native rebel) Artabanus III (last foreign ruler attested as king) Artabanus IV (last Parthian king in Babylonia)
Formation	c. 1894 BC
Abolition	539 BC (last native king) 484 BC or 336/335 BC (last native rebel) AD 81 (last foreign ruler attested as king) AD 224 (last Parthian king in Babylonia)
Appointer	Various: Election by the Babylonian priesthood or aristocracy Hereditary inheritance Usurpation/conquest of Babylon

Introduction[edit]

Royal titles[edit]

Viceroy (or governor) of Babylon (šakkanakki Bābili)^[4] – emphasises the political dominion of Babylon itself.^[2] For much of the city’s history, its rulers referred to themselves as viceroys or governors, rather than kings. The reason for this was that Babylon’s true king was formally considered to be its national deity, Marduk. By not explicitly claiming the royal title, Babylonian rulers thus showed reverence to the city’s god.^[5] The reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC) has been noted as a particular break in this tradition,^[5] as he assumed the title king of Babylon (šar Bābili),^[6] which may have contributed to widespread negative reception of him in Babylonia.^[5] However, šar Bābili is recorded as being used in some inscriptions from before Sennacherib’s time, such as in the inscriptions of his father and predecessor Sargon II (r. 710–705 BC in Babylon), who used it interchangeably with šakkanakki Bābili.^[4] Though Sennacherib’s successors would primarily use šakkanakki Bābili,^[7] there are likewise examples of them instead using šar Bābili.^[8] The titles would also be used interchangeably by the later Neo-Babylonian kings.^[9]
King of Karduniash (šar Karduniaš)^[10] – refers to rule of southern Mesopotamia as a whole.^[2] ‘Karduniash’ was the Kassite name for the Babylonian kingdom, and the title ‘king of Karduniash’ was introduced by the city’s third dynasty (the Kassites).^[11] The title continued to be used long after the Kassites had lost control of Babylon, for instance as late as under the native king Nabu-shuma-ukin I (r. c. 900–888 BC)^[12] and the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC).^[7]
King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi)^[13] – refers to rule of southern Mesopotamia as a whole.^[2] A title originally used by the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC), centuries prior to Babylon’s foundation. The title was used by kings to connect themselves to the culture and legacy of the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations,^[14] as well as to lay claim to the political hegemony achieved during the ancient Akkadian Empire. The title was also a geographical one, in that southern Mesopotamia was typically divided into the two regions Sumer (the south) and Akkad (the north), meaning that ‘king of Sumer and Akkad’ referred to rulership over the entire country.^[11] The title was used by the Babylonian kings until the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, and was also assumed by Cyrus the Great, who conquered Babylon and ruled Babylonia until his death in 530 BC.^[15]

Role and legitimacy[edit]

Dynasties[edit]

The name of Babylon’s first dynasty (palû Babili, simply ‘dynasty of Babylon’) in Neo-Babylonian Akkadian cuneiform

Sources[edit]

Babylonian King List A (BKLa, BM 33332)^[25] — created at some point after the foundation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylonian King List A records the kings of Babylon from the beginning of Babylon’s first dynasty under Sumu-abum (r. c. 1894–1881 BC) to Kandalanu (r. 648–627 BC). The end of the tablet is broken off, suggesting that it originally listed rulers after Kandalanu as well, possibly also listing the kings of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. All dynasties are separated by horizontal lines, under which subscript records a sum of the regnal years of each dynasty, and the number of kings the dynasties produced. Written in Neo-Babylonian script.^[26]
Babylonian King List B (BKLb, BM 38122)^[25] — date of origin uncertain, written in Neo-Babylonian script. Babylonian King List B records the kings of Babylon’s first dynasty, and the kings of the First Sealand dynasty, with subscripts recording the number of kings and their summed up reigns in these dynasties. Regnal years are recorded for the kings of the first dynasty, but omitted for the kings of the Sealand dynasty. The regnal years used for the kings are inconsistent with their actual reign lengths, possibly due to the author having copied the list from a document where the years had been lost or damaged. The list records genealogical information for all but two of the kings of the first dynasty, but only for two of the kings of the Sealand dynasty. Because the document is essentially two lists for two dynasties, it is possible that it was copied and extracted from longer king lists in the late period for some unknown purpose.^[26]
Babylonian King List C (BKLc)^[27] — a short text,^[28] written in Neo-Babylonian script.^[26] King List C is important as a source on the second dynasty of Isin, as the first seven lines of the preserved nine lines of text provide a portion of the sequence of kings of this dynasty and their dates. The corresponding section in Babylonian King List A is incompletely preserved.^[28] As the list ends with the Isin dynasty’s seventh king, Marduk-shapik-zeri (r. c. 1081–1069 BC), it is possible that it was written during the reign of his successor, Adad-apla-iddina (r. c. 1068–1047 BC).^[26] Its short length and unusual shape (being curved rather than flat)^[28] means that it might have been a practice tablet used by a young Babylonian student.^[26]
Synchronistic King List (ScKL)^[29] — a collection of individual tablets and examplars. The Synchronistic King List features two columns, and records the kings of Babylon and Assyria together, with kings recorded next to each other presumably being contemporaries. Unlike most of the other documents, this list generally omits regnal years and any genealogical information, but it also differs in including many of the chief scribes under the Assyrian and Babylonian kings. The tablet with the earliest known portion of the list begins with the Assyrian king Erishum I (uncertain regnal dates) and the Babylonian king Sumu-la-El (r. c. 1880–1845 BC). The latest known portion ends with Ashur-etil-ilani (r. 631–627 BC) in Assyria and Kandalanu in Babylon. As it is written in Neo-Assyrian script, it might have been created near the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.^[30]
Uruk King List (UKL, IM 65066)^[27] — the preserved portion of this king list records rulers from Kandalanu in the Assyrian period to Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BC) in the Seleucid period.^[27]
Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period (BM 35603)^[27] — written at Babylon at some point after 141 BC, recording rulers from the start of Hellenistic rule in Babylonia under Alexander the Great (r. 331–323 in Babylon),^[31] to the end of Seleucid rule under Demetrius II Nicator (r. 145–141 BC in Babylon) and the conquest of Babylonia by the Parthian Empire.^[32] Entries before Seleucus I Nicator (r. 305–281 BC) and after Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175–164 BC) are damaged and fragmentary.^[33]

Kingship after the Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit]

Names in cuneiform[edit]

Concise spelling (king lists)	Elaborate spelling (building inscriptions)
Nabû — kudurri — uṣur^[58]	Na — bi — um — ku — du — ur — ri — u — ṣu — ur^[59]

Date formulae (Neo-Babylonian signs)	Antiochus cylinder^[b]	Antiochus cylinder (Neo-Babylonian signs)	Antiochus cylinder (Neo-Assyrian signs)
An — ti — ʾ — i — ku — su^[62]	An — ti — ʾ — ku — us^[63]	An — ti — ʾ — ku — us^[64]	An — ti — ʾ — ku — us^[64]

Dynasty I (Amorite), 1894–1595 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Sumu-abum^[c]	Šumu-abum	c. 1894 BC	c. 1881 BC	First king of Babylon in BKLa and BKLb	^[70]
Sumu-la-El	Šumu-la-El	c. 1880 BC	c. 1845 BC	Unclear succession	^[70]
Sabium	Sabūm	c. 1844 BC	c. 1831 BC	Son of Sumu-la-El	^[70]
Apil-Sin	Apil-Sîn	c. 1830 BC	c. 1813 BC	Son of Sabium	^[70]
Sin-Muballit	Sîn-Muballit	c. 1812 BC	c. 1793 BC	Son of Apil-Sin	^[70]
Hammurabi	Ḫammu-rāpi	c. 1792 BC	c. 1750 BC	Son of Sin-Muballit	^[70]
Samsu-iluna	Šamšu-iluna	c. 1749 BC	c. 1712 BC	Son of Hammurabi	^[70]
Abi-Eshuh	Abī-Ešuḫ	c. 1711 BC	c. 1684 BC	Son of Samsu-iluna	^[70]
Ammi-Ditana	Ammi-ditāna	c. 1683 BC	c. 1647 BC	Son of Abi-Eshuh	^[70]
Ammi-Saduqa	Ammi-Saduqa	c. 1646 BC	c. 1626 BC	Son of Ammi-Ditana	^[70]
Samsu-Ditana	Šamšu-ditāna	c. 1625 BC	c. 1595 BC	Son of Ammi-Saduqa	^[70]

Dynasty II (1st Sealand), 1725–1475 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Ilum-ma-ili	Ilum-ma-ilī	c. 1725 BC	??	Unclear succession	^[74]
Itti-ili-nibi	Itti-ili-nībī	??	Unclear succession	^[74]
…^[d]	— ^[e]	??	Unclear succession	^[75]
Damqi-ilishu	Damqi-ilišu	[26 years(?)]	Unclear succession	^[74]
Ishkibal	Iškibal	[15 years]	Unclear succession	^[74]
Shushushi	Šušši	[24 years]	Brother of Ishkibal	^[74]
Gulkishar	Gulkišar	[55 years]	Unclear succession	^[74]
^mDIŠ-U-EN^[f]	[Uncertain reading]	??	Unclear succession	^[74]
Peshgaldaramesh	Pešgaldarameš	c. 1599 BC	c. 1549 BC	Son of Gulkishar	^[74]
Ayadaragalama	Ayadaragalama	c. 1548 BC	c. 1520 BC	Son of Peshgaldaramesh	^[74]
Akurduana	Akurduana	c. 1519 BC	c. 1493 BC	Unclear succession	^[74]
Melamkurkurra	Melamkurkurra	c. 1492 BC	c. 1485 BC	Unclear succession	^[74]
Ea-gamil	Ea-gamil	c. 1484 BC	c. 1475 BC	Unclear succession	^[74]

Dynasty III (Kassite), 1729–1155 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Gandash	Gandaš	c. 1729 BC	c. 1704 BC	Unclear succession	^[78]
Agum I	Agum	c. 1703 BC	c. 1682 BC	Son of Gandash	^[78]
Kashtiliash I	Kaštiliašu	c. 1681 BC	c. 1660 BC	Son of Agum I	^[78]
…^[g]	— ^[h]	c. 1659 BC	??	Unclear succession	^[78]
Abi-Rattash	Abi-Rattaš	??	Son of Kashtiliash I	^[80]
Kashtiliash II	Kaštiliašu	??	Unclear succession	^[80]
Urzigurumash	Ur-zigurumaš	??	Descendant of Abi-Rattash (?)^[i]	^[80]
Agum II^[j]	Agum-Kakrime	??	Son of Urzigurumash	^[80]
Harba-Shipak	Ḫarba-Šipak	??	Unclear succession	^[80]
Shipta’ulzi	Šipta’ulzi	??	Unclear succession	^[80]
…^[k]	— ^[l]	??	Unclear succession	^[82]
Burnaburiash I	Burna-Buriaš	c. 1530 BC	c. 1500 BC	Unclear succession, earliest Kassite ruler confidently attested as ruling Babylon itself	^[83]
Ulamburiash	Ulam-Buriaš	[c. 1475 BC]	Son of Burnaburiash I (?), reunified Babylonia through defeating Ea-gamil, the last king of the first Sealand dynasty	^[84]
Kashtiliash III	Kaštiliašu	??	Son of Burnaburiash I (?)	^[80]
Agum III	Agum	??	Son of Kashtiliash III	^[80]
Kadashman-Sah^[m]	Kadašman-Šaḥ	??	Unclear succession, co-ruler with Agum III?	^[86]
Karaindash	Karaindaš	[c. 1415 BC]	Unclear succession	^[80]
Kadashman-Harbe I	Kadašman-Ḫarbe	[c. 1400 BC]	Son of Karaindash (?)	^[87]
Kurigalzu I	Kuri-Galzu	??	Son of Kadashman-harbe I	^[80]
Kadashman-Enlil I	Kadašman-Enlil	c. 1374 BC	c. 1360 BC	Son of Kurigalzu I (?)^[n]	^[80]
Burnaburiash II	Burna-Buriaš	c. 1359 BC	c. 1333 BC	Son of Kadashman-Enlil I (?)	^[80]
Kara-hardash	Kara-ḫardaš	c. 1333 BC	c. 1333 BC	Son of Burnaburiash II (?)	^[80]
Nazi-Bugash	Nazi-Bugaš	c. 1333 BC	c. 1333 BC	Usurper, unrelated to other kings	^[80]
Kurigalzu II	Kuri-Galzu	c. 1332 BC	c. 1308 BC	Son of Burnaburiash II	^[80]
Nazi-Maruttash	Nazi-Maruttaš	c. 1307 BC	c. 1282 BC	Son of Kurigalzu II	^[80]
Kadashman-Turgu	Kadašman-Turgu	c. 1281 BC	c. 1264 BC	Son of Nazi-Maruttash	^[80]
Kadashman-Enlil II	Kadašman-Enlil	c. 1263 BC	c. 1255 BC	Son of Kadashman-Turgu	^[80]
Kudur-Enlil	Kudur-Enlil	c. 1254 BC	c. 1246 BC	Son of Kadashman-Enlil II	^[80]
Shagarakti-Shuriash	Šagarakti-Šuriaš	c. 1245 BC	c. 1233 BC	Son of Kudur-Enlil	^[80]
Kashtiliash IV	Kaštiliašu	c. 1232 BC	c. 1225 BC	Son of Shagarakti-Shuriash	^[80]
Enlil-nadin-shumi^[o]	Enlil-nādin-šumi	c. 1224 BC	c. 1224 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Kadashman-Harbe II^[o]	Kadašman-Ḫarbe	c. 1223 BC	c. 1223 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Adad-shuma-iddina^[o]	Adad-šuma-iddina	c. 1222 BC	c. 1217 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Adad-shuma-usur	Adad-šuma-uṣur	c. 1216 BC	c. 1187 BC	Son of Kashtiliash IV (?)	^[80]
Meli-Shipak	Meli-Šipak	c. 1186 BC	c. 1172 BC	Son of Adad-shuma-usur	^[80]
Marduk-apla-iddina I	Marduk-apla-iddina	c. 1171 BC	c. 1159 BC	Son of Meli-Shipak	^[80]
Zababa-shuma-iddin	Zababa-šuma-iddina	c. 1158 BC	c. 1158 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]
Enlil-nadin-ahi	Enlil-nādin-aḫe	c. 1157 BC	c. 1155 BC	Unclear succession	^[80]

Dynasty IV (2nd Isin), 1153–1022 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu	Marduk-kabit-aḫḫēšu	c. 1153 BC	c. 1136 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]
Itti-Marduk-balatu	Itti-Marduk-balāṭu	c. 1135 BC	c. 1128 BC	Son of Marduk-kabit-ahheshu	^[91]
Ninurta-nadin-shumi	Ninurta-nādin-šumi	c. 1127 BC	c. 1122 BC	Relative of Itti-Marduk-balatu (?)^[p]	^[91]
Nebuchadnezzar I	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	c. 1121 BC	c. 1100 BC	Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi	^[91]
Enlil-nadin-apli	Enlil-nādin-apli	c. 1099 BC	c. 1096 BC	Son of Nebuchadnezzar I	^[91]
Marduk-nadin-ahhe	Marduk-nādin-aḫḫē	c. 1095 BC	c. 1078 BC	Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi, usurped the throne from Enlil-nadin-apli	^[91]
Marduk-shapik-zeri	Marduk-šāpik-zēri	c. 1077 BC	c. 1065 BC	Son of Marduk-nadin-ahhe (?)^[q]	^[91]
Adad-apla-iddina	Adad-apla-iddina	c. 1064 BC	c. 1043 BC	Usurper, unrelated to previous kings	^[94]
Marduk-ahhe-eriba	Marduk-aḫḫē-erība	c. 1042 BC	c. 1042 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]
Marduk-zer-X	Marduk-zēra-[—]^[r]	c. 1041 BC	c. 1030 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]
Nabu-shum-libur	Nabû-šumu-libūr	c. 1029 BC	c. 1022 BC	Unclear succession	^[91]

Dynasty V (2nd Sealand), 1021–1001 BC[edit]

Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû tamti (‘dynasty of the Sealand’). Modern historians call it the second Sealand dynasty in order to distinguish it from Dynasty II.^[65]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Simbar-shipak	Simbar-Šipak	c. 1021 BC	c. 1004 BC	Probably of Kassite descent, unclear succession	^[96]
Ea-mukin-zeri	Ea-mukin-zēri	c. 1004 BC	c. 1004 BC	Probably of Kassite descent (Bit-Hashmar clan), usurped the throne from Simbar-Shipak	^[96]
Kashshu-nadin-ahi	Kaššu-nādin-aḫi	c. 1003 BC	c. 1001 BC	Probably of Kassite descent, son of Simbar-shipak (?)	^[96]

Dynasty VI (Bazi), 1000–981 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Eulmash-shakin-shumi	Eulmaš-šākin-šumi	c. 1000 BC	c. 984 BC	Possibly of Kassite descent (Bit-Bazi clan), unclear succession	^[96]
Ninurta-kudurri-usur I	Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur	c. 983 BC	c. 981 BC	Possibly of Kassite descent (Bit-Bazi clan), unclear succession	^[96]
Shirikti-shuqamuna	Širikti-šuqamuna	c. 981 BC	c. 981 BC	Possibly of Kassite descent (Bit-Bazi clan), brother of Ninurta-kudurri-usur I	^[96]

Dynasty VII (Elamite), 980–975 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Mar-biti-apla-usur	Mār-bīti-apla-uṣur	c. 980 BC	c. 975 BC	Described as having Elamite ancestry, unclear succession	^[96]

Dynasty VIII (E), 974–732 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Nabu-mukin-apli	Nabû-mukin-apli	c. 974 BC	c. 939 BC	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II	Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur	c. 939 BC	c. 939 BC	Babylonian, son of Nabu-mukin-apli	^[100]
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina	Mār-bῑti-aḫḫē-idinna	c. 938 BC	??	Babylonian, son of Nabu-mukin-apli	^[100]
Shamash-mudammiq	Šamaš-mudammiq	??	c. 901 BC^[s]	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-shuma-ukin I	Nabû-šuma-ukin	c. 900 BC^[s]	c. 887 BC^[t]	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-apla-iddina	Nabû-apla-iddina	c. 886 BC^[t]	c. 853 BC^[t]	Babylonian, son of Nabu-shuma-ukin I	^[100]
Marduk-zakir-shumi I	Marduk-zâkir-šumi	c. 852 BC^[t]^[u]	c. 825 BC^[u]	Babylonian, son of Nabu-apla-iddina	^[100]
Marduk-balassu-iqbi	Marduk-balāssu-iqbi	c. 824 BC^[u]	813 BC^[v]	Babylonian, son of Marduk-zakir-shumi I	^[100]
Baba-aha-iddina	Bāba-aḫa-iddina	813 BC^[v]	812 BC^[v]	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Babylonian interregnum (at least four years)^[w]^[x]
Ninurta-apla-X	Ninurta-apla-[—]^[y]	??	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Marduk-bel-zeri	Marduk-bēl-zēri	??	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Marduk-apla-usur	Marduk-apla-uṣur	??	c. 769 BC^[z]	Chaldean chief of an uncertain tribe, unclear succession	^[100]
Eriba-Marduk	Erība-Marduk	c. 769 BC^[z]	c. 760 BC^[z]	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-shuma-ishkun	Nabû-šuma-iškun	c. 760 BC^[z]	748 BC	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Dakkuri tribe, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabonassar	Nabû-nāṣir	748 BC	734 BC	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]
Nabu-nadin-zeri	Nabû-nādin-zēri	734 BC	732 BC	Babylonian, son of Nabonassar	^[100]
Nabu-shuma-ukin II	Nabû-šuma-ukin	732 BC	732 BC	Babylonian, unclear succession	^[100]

Dynasty IX (Assyrian), 732–626 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	palê	Succession	Ref
Nabu-mukin-zeri	Nabû-mukin-zēri	732 BC	729 BC	palê Šapî ‘Dynasty of Shapi’	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Amukkani tribe, usurped the throne	^[109]

Tiglath-Pileser III	Tukultī-apil-Ešarra	729 BC	727 BC	palê Baltil ‘Dynasty of [Assur]’	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — conquered Babylon	^[109]
Shalmaneser V	Salmānu-ašarēd	727 BC	722 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Tiglath-Pileser III	^[109]

Marduk-apla-iddina II (First reign)	Marduk-apla-iddina	722 BC	710 BC	palê Tamti ‘Dynasty of the Sealand’	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe, proclaimed king upon Shalmaneser V’s death	^[109]

Sargon II	Šarru-kīn	710 BC	705 BC	palê Ḫabigal ‘Dynasty of [Hanigalbat]’	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Tiglath-Pileser III (?)	^[109]
Sennacherib (First reign)	Sîn-ahhe-erība	705 BC	703 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Sargon II	^[109]

Marduk-zakir-shumi II	Marduk-zâkir-šumi	703 BC	703 BC	A Arad-Ea ‘Son [descendant] of Arad-Ea’	Babylonian rebel of the Arad-Ea family, rebel king	^[109]

Marduk-apla-iddina II (Second reign)	Marduk-apla-iddina	703 BC	703 BC	ERÍN Ḫabi ‘Soldier of [Hanigalbat?]’	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe, retook the throne	^[109]

Bel-ibni	Bel-ibni	703 BC	700 BC	palê E ‘Dynasty of E’	Babylonian vassal king of the Rab-bānî family, appointed by Sennacherib	^[109]

Ashur-nadin-shumi	Aššur-nādin-šumi	700 BC	694 BC	palê Ḫabigal ‘Dynasty of [Hanigalbat]’	Son of Sennacherib, appointed as vassal king by his father	^[109]

Nergal-ushezib	Nergal-ušezib	694 BC	693 BC	palê E ‘Dynasty of E’	Babylonian rebel of the Gaḫal kin family, rebel king	^[109]
Mushezib-Marduk	Mušezib-Marduk	693 BC	689 BC	Chaldean chief of the Bit-Dakkuri tribe, rebel king	^[109]

Sennacherib^[aa] (Second reign)	Sîn-ahhe-erība	689 BC	20 October 681 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — retook Babylon	^[113]
Esarhaddon	Aššur-aḫa-iddina	December 681 BC	1 November 669 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Sennacherib	^[114]
Ashurbanipal^[ab] (First reign)	Aššur-bāni-apli	1 November 669 BC	March 668 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Esarhaddon	^[110]
Shamash-shum-ukin	Šamaš-šuma-ukin	March 668 BC	648 BC	Son of Esarhaddon, designated by his father as heir to Babylon, invested as vassal king by Ashurbanipal	^[110]
Ashurbanipal^[ac] (Second reign)	Aššur-bāni-apli	648 BC	646 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — retook Babylon after rebellion by Shamash-shum-ukin	^[116]
Kandalanu	Kandalānu	647 BC	627 BC	Appointed as vassal king by Ashurbanipal	^[110]
Sin-shumu-lishir^[ad]	Sîn-šumu-līšir	626 BC	626 BC	Usurper in the Neo-Assyrian Empire — recognised in Babylonia	^[110]
Sinsharishkun^[ad]	Sîn-šar-iškun	626 BC	626 BC	King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — son of Ashurbanipal	^[110]

Dynasty X (Chaldean), 626–539 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Nabopolassar	Nabû-apla-uṣur	22/23 November 626 BC	July 605 BC	Babylonian rebel, defeated Sinsharishkun	^[120]
Nebuchadnezzar II	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	August 605 BC	7 October 562 BC	Son of Nabopolassar	^[120]
Amel-Marduk	Amēl-Marduk	7 October 562 BC	August 560 BC	Son of Nebuchadnezzar II	^[120]

Neriglissar	Nergal-šar-uṣur	August 560 BC	April 556 BC	Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II, usurped the throne	^[120]
Labashi-Marduk	Lâbâši-Marduk	April 556 BC	June 556 BC	Son of Neriglissar	^[120]

Nabonidus	Nabû-naʾid	25 May 556 BC	13 October 539 BC	Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II (?), usurped the throne	^[121]

Babylon under foreign rule, 539 BC – AD 224[edit]

Dynasty XI (Achaemenid), 539–331 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Cyrus II the Great	Kuraš	29 October 539 BC	August 530 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — conquered Babylon	^[122]
Cambyses II	Kambuzīa	August 530 BC	April 522 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Cyrus II	^[122]
Bardiya	Barzia	April/May 522 BC	29 September 522 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Cyrus II or an impostor	^[122]

Nebuchadnezzar III	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	3 October 522 BC	December 522 BC	Babylonian rebel of the Zazakku family, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus	^[123]

Darius I the Great (First reign)	Dariamuš	December 522 BC	25 August 521 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — distant relative of Cyrus II	^[122]

Nebuchadnezzar IV	Nabû-kudurri-uṣur	25 August 521 BC	27 November 521 BC	Babylonian rebel of Armenian descent, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus	^[124]

Darius I the Great (Second reign)	Dariamuš	27 November 521 BC	November 486 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — retook Babylon	^[122]
Xerxes I the Great (First reign)	Aḥšiaršu	November 486 BC	July 484 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Darius I	^[122]

Shamash-eriba	Šamaš-eriba	July 484 BC	October 484 BC	Babylonian rebel	^[125]
Bel-shimanni	Bêl-šimânni	July 484 BC	August 484 BC	Babylonian rebel	^[125]

Xerxes I the Great (Second reign)	Aḥšiaršu	October 484 BC	465 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — retook Babylon	^[122]
Artaxerxes I	Artakšatsu	465 BC	December 424 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Xerxes I	^[122]
Xerxes II	— ^[ae]	424 BC	424 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Artaxerxes I	^[122]
Sogdianus	— ^[ae]	424 BC	423 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I	^[122]
Darius II	Dariamuš	February 423 BC	c. April 404 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I	^[122]
Artaxerxes II	Artakšatsu	c. April 404 BC	359/358 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Darius II	^[122]
Artaxerxes III	Artakšatsu	359/358 BC	338 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Artaxerxes II	^[122]
Artaxerxes IV	Artakšatsu	338 BC	336 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — son of Artaxerxes III	^[122]

Nidin-Bel	Nidin-Bêl	336 BC	336/335 BC	Babylonian rebel (?), attested only in the Uruk King List, alternatively a scribal error	^[126]

Darius III	Dariamuš	336/335 BC	October 331 BC	King of the Achaemenid Empire — grandson of Artaxerxes II	^[122]

Dynasty XII (Argead), 331–305 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Alexander III the Great	Aliksandar	October 331 BC	11 June 323 BC	King of Macedon — conquered the Achaemenid Empire	^[127]
Philip III Arrhidaeus	Pilipsu	11 June 323 BC	317 BC^[af]	King of Macedon — brother of Alexander III	^[129]

Antigonus I Monophthalmus^[ag]	Antigunusu	317 BC	309/308 BC	King of the Antigonid Empire — general (Diadochus) of Alexander III	^[132]

Alexander IV	Aliksandar	316 BC	310 BC^[ah]	King of Macedon — son of Alexander III	^[134]

Dynasty XIII (Seleucid), 305–141 BC[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Seleucus I Nicator	Siluku	305 BC^[ai]	September 281 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — general (Diadochus) of Alexander III	^[134]
Antiochus I Soter	Antiʾukusu	294 BC^[aj]	2 June 261 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus I	^[136]
Seleucus^[ak]	Siluku	281 BC	266 BC	Joint-king of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus I	^[137]
Antiochus II Theos	Antiʾukusu	266 BC^[aj]	July 246 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus I	^[136]
Seleucus II Callinicus	Siluku	July 246 BC	225 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus II	^[136]
Seleucus III Ceraunus	Siluku	225 BC	223 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus II	^[138]
Antiochus III the Great	Antiʾukusu	223 BC	3 July 187 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus II	^[138]
Antiochus^[al]	Antiʾukusu	210 BC	192 BC	Joint-king of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus III	^[140]
Seleucus IV Philopator	Siluku	189 BC^[aj]	3 September 175 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus III	^[141]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes	Antiʾukusu	3 September 175 BC	164 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus III	^[142]
Antiochus^[al]	Antiʾukusu	175 BC	170 BC	Joint-king of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus IV	^[143]
Antiochus V Eupator	Antiʾukusu	164 BC	162 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Antiochus IV	^[144]
Demetrius I Soter (First reign)	Dimitri	c. January 161 BC^[am]	c. January 161 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Seleucus IV	^[146]

Timarchus	— ^[an]	c. January 161 BC^[ao]	c. May 161 BC^[ao]	Rebel satrap (vassal governor) under the Seleucids — captured and briefly ruled Babylonia	^[147]

Demetrius I Soter (Second reign)	Dimitri	c. May 161 BC	150 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — reconquered Babylonia	^[148]
Alexander Balas	Aliksandar	150 BC	146 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — supposedly son of Antiochus IV	^[149]
Demetrius II Nicator	Dimitri	146 BC	141 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Demetrius I	^[150]

Dynasty XIV (Arsacid), 141 BC – AD 224[edit]

King	Akkadian	Reigned from	Reigned until	Succession	Ref
Mithridates I	Aršakâ^[ap]	141 BC	132 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — conquered Babylonia	^[156]
Phraates II (First reign)	Aršakâ	132 BC	July 130 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Mithridates I	^[157]
Rinnu^[aq]	Ri-[—]-nu^[ar]	132 BC	July 130 BC	Mother and regent for Phraates II, who was a minor at the time of his accession	^[157]

Antiochus VII Sidetes	Antiʾukusu	July 130 BC	November 129 BC	King of the Seleucid Empire — son of Demetrius I, conquered Babylonia	^[160]

Phraates II (Second reign)	Aršakâ	November 129 BC	128/127 BC^[as]	King of the Parthian Empire — reconquered Babylonia	^[162]
Ubulna^[at]	Ubulna	November 129 BC	128/127 BC	Unclear identity, associated with Phraates II – probably his queen	^[162]

Hyspaosines	Aspasinē	128/127 BC^[as]	November 127 BC	King of Characene — captured Babylon in the wake of Antiochus VII Sidetes’s campaign	^[163]

Artabanus I	Aršakâ	November 127 BC	124 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — brother of Mithridates I, conquered Babylonia	^[164]
Mithridates II	Aršakâ	124 BC	91 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Artabanus I	^[165]
Gotarzes I	Aršakâ	91 BC	80 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Mithridates II	^[166]
Asi’abatar^[at]	Aši’abatum	91 BC	80 BC	Wife (queen) of Gotarzes I	^[166]
Orodes I	Aršakâ	80 BC	75 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Mithridates II or Gotarzes I	^[167]
Ispubarza^[at]	Isbubarzâ	80 BC	75 BC	Sister-wife (queen) of Orodes I	^[168]
Sinatruces	Aršakâ	75 BC	69 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son or brother of Mithridates I	^[169]
Phraates III	Aršakâ	69 BC	57 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Sinatruces	^[170]
Piriustana^[at]	Piriustanâ	69 BC	??	Wife (queen) of Phraates III	^[171]
Teleuniqe^[at]	Ṭeleuniqê	??	57 BC	Wife (queen) of Phraates III	^[171]
Orodes II	Aršakâ	57 BC	38 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates III	^[172]
Phraates IV	Aršakâ	38 BC	2 BC	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Orodes II	^[173]
Phraates V^[au]	Aršakâ	2 BC	AD 4	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates IV	^[174]
Orodes III	Aršakâ	AD 4	AD 6	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates IV (?)	^[175]
Vonones I	Aršakâ	AD 6	AD 12	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Phraates IV	^[176]
Artabanus II	Aršakâ	AD 12	AD 38	King of the Parthian Empire — grandson of Phraates IV (?)	^[177]
Vardanes I	Aršakâ	AD 38	AD 46	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Artabanus II	^[177]
Gotarzes II	Aršakâ	AD 38	AD 51	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Artabanus II	^[177]
Vonones II	Aršakâ	AD 51	AD 51	King of the Parthian Empire — grandson of Phraates IV (?)	^[178]
Vologases I	Aršakâ	AD 51	AD 78	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vonones II or Artabanus II	^[156]
Pacorus II	Aršakâ	AD 78	AD 110	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases I	^[179]
Artabanus III^[av]	Aršakâ	AD 79/80	AD 81	Rival king of the Parthian Empire (against Pacorus II) — son of Vologases I	^[180]
Osroes I	— ^[aw]	AD 109	AD 129	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Pacorus II	^[181]
Vologases III	— ^[aw]	AD 110	AD 147	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Pacorus II	^[182]
Parthamaspates	— ^[aw]	AD 116	AD 117	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Osroes I	^[183]
Vologases IV	— ^[aw]	AD 147	AD 191	King of the Parthian Empire — grandson of Pacorus II	^[183]
Vologases V	— ^[aw]	AD 191	AD 208	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases IV	^[184]
Vologases VI	— ^[aw]	AD 208	AD 216/228	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases V	^[185]
Artabanus IV	— ^[aw]	AD 216	AD 224	King of the Parthian Empire — son of Vologases V	^[186]

Notes[edit]

^ The star of Shamash was often used as a standard in southern Mesopotamia from the Akkadian period down to the Neo-Babylonian period.^[1]
^ The Antiochus cylinder is written in Babylonian cuneiform, though with some unorthodox and strange choices of signs. Its rendition of the name Antiochus is featured here, alongside transcriptions of the same spelling of Antiochus, but with ordinary Babylonian and Assyrian signs, to illustrate the differences.^[61]
^ Sumu-abum was the first king of Babylon according to Babylonian King Lists A and B. There is no contemporary evidence for his rule in Babylon; the earliest ruler who there is textual evidence of in Babylon itself is Sin-Muballit, the fifth king according to the king lists. Sumu-abum is contemporarily attested as a ruler of the cities Dilbat, Sippar and Kisurra, but some evidence seems to suggest that he and Sumu-la-El (his supposed successor) were contemporaries. Later rulers of Babylon’s first dynasty referred to Sumu-la-El, rather than Sumu-abum, as the founder of their dynasty. It is possible that Sumu-abum did not rule Babylon, but for some reason was inserted in later traditions into the city’s dynastic history. Perhaps Sumu-la-El ruled Babylon as a vassal of Sumu-abum, who might have ruled a larger group of territories.^[69]
^ No king list includes a king between Itti-ili-nibi and Damqi-ilishu, and Babylonian King List A states that Dynasty II had 11 kings, speaking against the existence of this figure. The existence of an unknown king here is thus very speculative, based on the presence of the sign AŠ between lines 5 and 6 of BKLa, between Itti-ili-nibi and Damqi-ilishu, which might be a reference to a king between them, as the same sign later in the list has been seen by some scholars as evidence of an attestation of another unknown king, attested in the Synchronistic King List but unattested in other sources.^[75]
^ Name not preserved.^[75]
^ Omitted in Babylonian King Lists A and B, only being included in the Synchronistic King List. The reading of the signs making up his name is not certain.^[73] The issue derives from the poor quality early photographs of the tablet and its subsequent deteriorating condition. The presence of the sign AŠ between lines 10 and 11 of BKLa, between Gulkishar and Peshgaldaramesh might be a reference to a king between them.^[75] Given that he only appears in one source, and BKLa states that there were 11 kings of this dynasty, his existence is not certain. Perhaps he was a real king who reigned very briefly.^[75]
^ Babylonian King List A adds a king between Kashtiliash I and Abi-Rattash, but the list is damaged and the name is not preserved. The Synchronistic King List omits this figure.^[79]
^ Name not preserved.^[79]
^ One possible reading of an inscription by Agum II indicates that Abi-Rattash was an ancestor of Agum II’s father Urzigurumash.^[81]
^ As Agum II explicitly refers to Urzigurumash as his father in his own inscriptions, Beaulieu (2018) placed him as Urzigurumash’s direct successor.^[79] Chen (2020) placed him later, as the direct predecessor of Burnaburiash I.^[66]
^ There being a king between Shipta’ulzi and Burnaburiash I is indicated by both Babylonian King List A and the Synchronistic King List, but as both texts are damaged, neither list preserves the name of this ruler. Historically, the fragments left have been interpreted as suggesting that this king’s name was Agum, but this reading has been abandoned by modern scholars.^[79]
^ Name not preserved.^[79]
^ Kadashman-Sah does not appear in king lists. The only evidence of his existence are tablets that are dated to the reign of ‘Agum and Kadashman-Sah’, suggesting that he was a king, and that there was some form of co-rulership. It is possible that he was a transitional ruler with only local power.^[85]
^ There are no sources that directly indicate a familial connection between Kadashman-Enlil I and Kurigalzu I, but Kadashman-Enlil I’s presumed son, Burnaburiash II, refers to Kurigalzu I as his ancestor in a letter.^[88]
^ ^a ^b ^c Kashtiliash IV was deposed by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I c. 1225 BC. The Bablyonian Chronicles describe Tukulti-Ninurta I as destroying Babylon’s walls and incorporating the city into his empire for seven years until the Babylonians rebelled and placed Kashtiliash IV’s son, Adad-shuma-usur, on the throne. Babylonian King List A contradicts this, listing three rulers between Kashtiliash IV and Adad-shuma-usur. As the reigns of these three kings add up to just a little less than seven years, scholars have historically interpreted this to mean that these three kings were appointed vassals of Tukulti-Ninurta I. The Babylonian Chronicles seem to suggest that Adad-shuma-usur ruled in the south of Bablyonia concurrently with Tukulti-Ninurta controlling the north (and Babylon itself). Beaulieu (2018) suggests the possibility that these three kings were contemporary rivals, rather than successors of one another, and that Adad-shuma-usur did succeed Kashtiliash IV directly, but only in the south, and only took control of Babylon late in his reign.^[89]
^ A family link between Ninurta-nadin-shumi and his immediate predecessors cannot be proven from the sources, but the only definitely attested break in family succession to the throne in this dynasty was the accession of Adad-apla-iddina, who is explicitly designated as an usurper in the sources.^[92]
^ Marduk-shapik-zeri was once believed to be attested as Marduk-nadin-ahhe’s son, but the reading of the relevant text is uncertain–it cannot be proven, or disproven, that Marduk-shapik-zeri was Marduk-nadin-ahhe’s son.^[93] The only definitely attested break in family succession to the throne in this dynasty was the accession of Adad-apla-iddina, who is explicitly designated as an usurper in the sources.^[92]
^ The name of this king has not survived in its complete form in any source. The ‘X’ in his name was inserted by modern historians to mark the missing portion. The reading of the second element of his name, zēra, is not fully certain. According to Brinkman (1968), there are many possibilities for what the full name was (based on known Babylonian names with the same first two elements), including: Marduk-zēra-ibni, Marduk-zēra-iddina, Marduk-zēra-iqīša, Marduk-zēra-uballiṭ, Marduk-zēra-ukīn, Marduk-zēra-uṣur, Marduk-zēra-ušallim and Marduk-zēra-līšir.^[95]
^ ^a ^b Shamash-mudammiq is described as having been defeated by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari II c. 901 BC.^[101]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Beaulieu (2018) states that Nabu-apla-iddina’s 31st year as king was c. 855 BC.^[101] Chen (2020) ascribes Nabu-apla-iddina a 33-year reign.^[66]
^ ^a ^b ^c Chen (2020) ascribes Marduk-zakir-shumi I a 27-year reign.^[66]
^ ^a ^b ^c Marduk-balassu-iqbi was deposed by the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V in 813 BC. Less than a year later, in 812 BC, Shamshi-Adad deposed Marduk-balassu-iqbi’s successor, Baba-aha-iddina.^[102]
^ After Baba-aha-iddina was taken to Assyria as a captive by the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V in 812 BC, Babylonia entered into an interregnum lasting several (at least four) years, which the chronicles describe as a period when there was «no king in the land». The chief claimants to royal power in Babylonia at this time was the Assyrians. Though they did not claim the title ‘king of Babylon’, Shamshi-Adad V took the title ‘king of Sumer and Akkad’ after his victory in 812 BC and Shamshi-Adad’s son and successor, Adad-nirari III, claimed that ‘all the kings of Chaldea’ were his vassals and that he had received tribute, as well as sacrificial meals (a Babylonian royal prerogative) at Babylon. The Babylonian crown had thus, at least nominally, been taken over by the Assyrians, though as Assyria was in a weakened state its kings were unable to fully exploit the situation.^[103]
^ Some of the Chaldean tribes during this time also either claimed royal Babylonian power, or asserted their own independence. A seal from the time of the interregnum depicts the chief of the Bit-Yakin tribe (and father of the later king Eriba-Marduk), Marduk-shakin-shumi, in the traditional Babylonian royal garbs. There is also a contract tablet known that describes a weight being sent to the ‘palace of Nabu-shumu-lishir, descendant of Dakkuru’. Nabu-shumu-lishir of the Bit-Dakkuri tribe’s claim to reside in a ‘palace’ was equivalent to claiming to be a king.^[103]
^ Ninurta-apla-X is only known from Babylonian King List A, where his name is broken off and incompletely preserved. The ‘X’ in his name was inserted by modern historians to mark the missing portion.^[104]^[105] The second element of the name, apla, is not a fully certain reading.^[105] According to Brinkman (1968), the full name might have been Ninurta-apla-uṣur or something similar.^[105]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Beaulieu (2018) writes that Eriba-Marduk’s ninth and last year as king was c. 760 BC.^[106]
^ Recognising Sennacherib as the king of Babylon from 689 to 681 BC is the norm in modern lists of Babylonian kings.^[110] Babylon was destroyed at this time and many contemporary Babylonian documents, such as chronicles, refer to Sennacherb’s second reign in Babylonia as a «kingless period» without a king in the land.^[111] Babylonian King List A nevertheless includes Sennacherib as the king of this period, listing his second reign as taking place between the downfall of Mushezib-Marduk and the accession of Esarhaddon.^[112]
^ Though Shamash-shum-ukin was the legitimate successor of Esarhaddon to the Babylonian throne, appointed by his father, he was not formally invested as such until the spring after his father’s death. Lists of kings of Babylon by modern historians typically regard Ashurbanipal, Esarhaddon’s successor in Assyria, as the ruler of Babylon during this brief ‘interregnum’.^[110] The Uruk King List lists Ashurbanipal as Shamash-shum-ukin’s predecessor, but also lists him as ruling simultaneously with his brother, giving his reign as 669–647 BC.^[115] In contrast, Babylonian King List A omits Ashurbanipal entirely, listing Shamash-shum-ukin as the direct successor of Esarhaddon, and Kandalanu as the direct successor of Shamash-shum-ukin.^[112]
^ Ashurbanipal is again not recorded by the Babylonian King List A as ruler between Shamash-shum-ukin and Kandalanu,^[112] and is not recorded as such in lists by modern historians either.^[110] Ashurbanipal did however rule Babylonia from the defeat of Shamash-shum-ukin in the summer of 648 BC to Kandalanu’s appointment in 647 BC. Date formulae from Babylonia during this time are dated to Ashurbanipal’s rule, and indicate that the transfer of power to Kandalanu was gradual. Tablets were still dated to Ashurbanipal around the end of 647 BC at Borsippa, and as late as the spring of 646 BC at Dilbat. After 646 BC, tablets in Babylonia are exclusively dated to Kandalanu’s reign.^[116]
^ ^a ^b The Babylonian Chronicles describe the period between Kandalanu and Nabopolassar as a «kingless» one and some date formulae from this period are dated to «the year after Kandalanu», suggesting an interregnum. The Uruk King List records Sin-shumu-lishir and Sinsharishkun’s reigns, however,^[117] as do lists of Babylonian kings by modern historians.^[110]
^ ^a ^b Contemporary Babylonian contract tablets, as well as Babylonian king lists, omit both Xerxes II and Sogdianus, suggesting that the Babylonians viewed Darius II as Artaxerxes I’s immediate successor.^{[citation needed]}
^ Philip III Arrhidaeus died in 317 BC. Certain Babylonian documents continue to recognise him as king until 316 BC.^[128]
^ Antigonus, one of Alexander III’s former generals who took power in the eastern regions of Alexander’s empire, began issuing date formulae in his own name, rather than in the name of an official king.^[130] The Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period suggests that Antigonus’s rule was not considered legal and that he should have submitted to the rule of Alexander III’s son, Alexander IV. The list writes that «there was no king in the land» for several years and titles Antigonus as the chief of the army, rather than king.^[131] The Uruk King List includes Antigonus without comments on his status.^[115]
^ Alexander IV died in 310 BC. Certain Babylonian documents continue to recognise him as king until 305 BC, when Seleucus I Nicator became king.^[128] The Babylonians were aware that Alexander IV had died in 310 BC, but they continued to date documents to his reign posthumously for several years since there was no clear legitimate heir.^[133]
^ Seleucus I Nicator became king in 305 BC, but he retroactively dated to his accession to 311 BC.^[128] The Babylonian King List dates Seleucus I’s accession to 305/304 BC.^[130]
^ ^a ^b ^c Did not technically become senior king until his father’s death, from which his rule is counted in the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic period,^[135] but recognised as king in date formulae alongside his father from this earlier date onwards.^[128]
^ Junior ruler who never ruled in his own right, recognised as king of Babylon alongside his senior counterpart in date formulae.^[128]
^ ^a ^b Junior ruler who never ruled in his own right, recognised as king of Babylon alongside his senior counterpart in date formulae^[128] and in the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period.^[139]
^ Demetrius I Soter deposed and killed Antiochus V Eupator in 162 BC, but the last known document dated to Antiochus V’s rule at Babylon is from 11 January 161 BC. It is possible that it took several weeks for the news of Antiochus V’s death to reach the eastern provinces.^[145]
^ No known cuneiform tablets record Timarchus’s brief rule in Babylonia.^[147]
^ ^a ^b Given that tablets dating to Antiochus V Eupator are known from January 161 BC, and the earliest known tablet dated to Demetrius I is from 14 May 161 BC, Timarchus’s brief control of Babylon must have transpired at some point between these dates.^[145]
^ Babylonian documents from the period of Parthian rule refer to virtually all Parthian kings as Arshaka, Arshakan, Arshakamma, or some other Akkadian variant of the name Arsaces.^[154] This list uses the spelling Aršakâ per Spar & Lambert (2005).^[155]
Arsaces was used as the regnal name by all Parthian kings, making it more similar to an official title, such as the Roman Caesar, than a name. If there was a period of civil war or rivalry, i.e. in times where there were multiple Arsaces at the same time and clarification was needed, Babylonian documents sometimes employed the personal names of the kings.^[154] The practice of all Parthian kings assuming Arsaces as their regnal name complicates establishing a chronology of rulers,^[154]^[128] which mainly has to follow evidence from coinage.^[154]
^ Though formally only a regent during the minority of her son, a contemporary Babylonian tablet counts Rinnu as a monarch. The date formula of this tablet reads ‘Arshak and Ri-[in(?)]-nu, his mother, kings’.^[158]
^ Name incompletely preserved (middle sign missing).^[159]
^ ^a ^b Phraates II’s rule in Babylon is last attested on 17 May 128 BC. Hyspaosines is first attested as ruler on 30/31 May 127 BC.^[161]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Queen consort, and thus not formally a monarch, but recorded together with her husband as ruler in Babylonian date formulae.^[36]
^ Phraates V’s mother, Musa, who ruled with him as co-ruler, is not recorded as a monarch in any known Babylonian tablets.^[36]
^ The latest known datable Akkadian cuneiform tablet is W22340a, found at Uruk and dated to AD 79/80. The tablet preserves the word LUGAL (king), indicating that the Babylonians by this point still recognised a king.^[51] The ruler of Babylonia at this point in time was the Parthian rival king (i. e. usurper) Artabanus III, noted by historians as having had support for his rule in Babylonia, but not much support elsewhere in the Parthian Empire.^[52]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Although the late Parthian kings would presumably have been referred to as Aršákā, like their predecessors, no cuneiform records are known from beyond AD 79/80.^[51]

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^ Chen 2020, pp. 1–2.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 69.
^ ^a ^b Beaulieu 2018, p. 131.
^ Boivin 2018, p. 46.
^ ^a ^b Beaulieu 2018, p. 129.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, pp. 129–130.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Boivin 2018, p. 37.
^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 10–13, 154–155, 176–178.
^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 127–128.
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^ Brinkman 1968, p. 119.
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^ Brinkman 1968, p. 146.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 177.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 178.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 184.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 186.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 195.
^ Brinkman 1973, p. 95.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fales 2014, p. 206.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 195; Radner 2003, p. 166.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 195; Fales 2012, p. 135.
^ ^a ^b Lendering 2005.
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^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 223.
^ Waerzeggers 2015, p. 183.
^ Thomas 2014, p. 137.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 220; Parker & Dubberstein 1942, pp. 9–11.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Beaulieu 2018, p. 247; Parker & Dubberstein 1942, pp. 11–17.
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^ ^a ^b Boiy 2011, p. 3.
^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 204.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxi; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 204; Bertin 1891, p. 52.
^ Boiy 2011, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 205.
^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 206.
^ ^a ^b ^c Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 206.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 207; Mittag 2008, p. 50.
^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 207.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 207.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 208.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, pp. 208–209; Mittag 2008, p. 51.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, pp. 208–209; Gera 1998, p. 110.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxi, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209; Scolnic 2014, p. 5.
^ ^a ^b Houghton 1979, p. 215–216.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209; Scolnic 2014, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b Houghton 1979, pp. 213–217; Boiy 2004, pp. 164–165.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Houghton 1979, pp. 213–217; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209; Mittag 2008, p. 51.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209.
^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 229–239.
^ Dąbrowa 2012, pp. 169–176.
^ Daryaee 2012, pp. 391–392.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Olmstead 1937, p. 14.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xlii.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 57.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Shayegan 2011, p. 123.
^ Olmstead 1937, p. 13.
^ Shayegan 2011, p. 230.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, pp. xxii, xlii; Shayegan 2011, pp. 110–111; Shayegan 2011, p. 123.
^ Shayegan 2011, p. 111.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Shayegan 2011, pp. 110–111; Shayegan 2011, p. 123.
^ Oelsner 2014, p. 301; Shayegan 2011, pp. 110–111.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Daryaee 2012, p. 391.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 35.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Lewy 1944, p. 202.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Lewy 1944, p. 203; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 36.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Lewy 1944, p. 203.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, pp. 36–37.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 40.
^ ^a ^b Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Shayegan 2011, p. 235.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 41.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 43.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, pp. 45–46.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 48; Daryaee 2012, p. 391.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 48.
^ ^a ^b ^c Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 49.
^ Daryaee 2012, pp. 391–392; Olbrycht 2016, p. 24.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 58.
^ Spar & Lambert 2005, p. xxii; Schippmann 1986, pp. 647–650.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Ellerbrock 2021, pp. 60–61.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Dąbrowa 2012, p. 176.
^ ^a ^b Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 61.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Patterson 2013, pp. 180–181.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 14; Ellerbrock 2021, p. 63.
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Источник

В месте встречи великих рек Тигр и Евфрат, когда-то стоял великий древний город Вавилон. Небольшая территориальная община выросла в невероятно могущественное Вавилонское царство. Вавилон неоднократно подвергался набегам и разрушениям, прекратил он своё существование во 2 веке, но слава этого величайшего государства жива и сегодня. Своим величием Вавилон практически во всём обязан самому знаменитому из своих царей – Хаммурапи. Этот человек сумел превратить Вавилон в важнейший экономический и культурный центр Ближнего Востока.

Что же такого особенного сделал этот царь, что имя его на слуху, спустя почти четыре тысячелетия после смерти?

Когда был рождён Хаммурапи — доподлинно установить историкам не удалось. Единственное, что уверенно утверждают специалисты, это то, что он был очень молод, когда взошёл на престол. Кроме этого, загадкой для учёных является и имя знаменитого вавилонского царя. Некоторые из экспертов считают, что это «Хамму-раби», что означает «предок велик». Есть специалисты, которые склоняются к версии, что на самом деле это «Хамму-рапи», то есть «предок-целитель».

На заре правления Хаммурапи, Вавилония была весьма скромным государством. Несколько относительно небольших городов в радиусе меньше ста километров. До наших дней не дошло бы и время начала правления этого царя, если бы не вавилонская традиция называть годы по каким-либо знаковым деяниям царей. Начало правления Хаммурапи ознаменовалось установлением «справедливости». Это было прощение всех долгов всем жителям. Второй год этого царя на престоле вавилоняне назвали «год справедливости Хаммурапи». Это был период с 1793 по 1750 год до нашей эры.

Вавилон к этому моменту был очень молодым государством — ему было менее сотни лет. Первые пятнадцать лет правления Хаммурапи никак не отражены в исторических документах. Историки знают только то, что царь активно отстраивал своё государство и расширял его за счёт завоевания соседних народов. Делал он это весьма успешно и царство значительно увеличилось в размерах.

Более всего, конечно, этот правитель запомнился благодаря Кодексу Хаммурапи, который был начертан на каменных столбах. Эти столбы равнялись человеческому росту и были размещены во всех городах вавилонского царства. Но этот свод из 282 законов был лишь одним из огромных достижений харизматичного лидера, превратившего ничем не выдающийся город-государство Вавилон, в доминирующую державу древней Месопотамии.

Во всё время своего правления, Хаммурапи служил прекрасным образцом того, как нужно сочетать военную мощь, дипломатическое искусство и политическое мастерство для создания и контроля империи, простирающейся от Персидского залива вглубь страны. Помимо высекания законов на каменных столбах, этот великий человек был мудрым правителем, отважным воином, искусным дипломатом и великолепным администратором.

Хаммурапи стал величайшим из царей своего времени, потому что он был проницательным государственным деятелем. Он невероятно ловко проложил себе путь к господству в регионе. Вавилонский царь умел заключить очень нужный союз и также лихо разорвать его, как только он становился невыгодным. Хаммурапи владел чрезвычайно развитой для тех времён шпионской сетью. Он был самым информированным правителем в регионе. Изощрённая дипломатия способствовала продвижению интересов Вавилонского царства. Одновременно с этим царь наращивал военную мощь. Правление Хаммурапи походило на искусную шахматную партию, где царь безоговорочно выигрывал.

Хаммурапи — строитель и завоеватель

Хаммурапи стал первым вавилонским царём, воздвигшим защитные стены вокруг города. В то же время правитель постарался снискать расположение своих подданных, издав прокламацию, аннулирующую все их долги. Этот широкий жест царь повторял за время своего правления четырежды. Подобно современному губернатору или мэру, который повышает свою популярность за счёт ремонта дорог и строительства мостов в своем родном городе, Хаммурапи ещё больше укрепился в политическом плане, реализовав целый ряд масштабных инфраструктурных проектов. Он построил храмы, зернохранилища, дворцы, мост через реку Евфрат, который позволил городу расширяться на обоих берегах. Хаммурапи вырыл большой оросительный канал, который стал защищать вавилонскую землю от наводнений.

Сделанные им вложения окупились сторицей, поскольку Вавилон постепенно превратился в богатое и процветающее государство. Хаммурапи, в свою очередь, позаботился о том, чтобы все знали, что только он причастен ко всему, что несёт стране процветание. Царь следил за тем, чтобы обо всех удачах было донесено народу. Например, когда он построил канал, то постарался проинформировать всех о том, что он только выполняет свои обязательства перед богами, которые доверили ему эту землю. Очень грамотный пиар.

«Берега Евфрата с обеих сторон я превратил в возделываемые земли», — провозгласил Хаммурапи, согласно «Истории цивилизации» историка Уилла Дюранта. «Я насыпал кучи зерна, я обеспечил землю безупречной водой… Разрознённых людей я собрал и обеспечил пастбищами и водой. Я дал им всё, я выпас их в изобилии и поселил в мирных жилищах».

После нескольких десятилетий строительства Вавилона Хаммурапи стал достаточно силён, чтобы начать захватнические войны. Чем он весьма успешно и занялся. Хаммурапи быстро завоевал Эшнунну на востоке, Ассирию на севере, Ларсу на юге и Мари на западе. Царь умел очень ловко, хотя и двулично сочетать силу и дипломатию. Хаммурапи заключал союзы с другими правителями, а затем разрывал их, когда это было ему удобно. Он также вёл войну чрезвычайно хитрыми способами. Одна из его знаменитых уловок заключалась в том, чтобы перекрыть водоснабжение осаждённого города. Затем он либо использовал жажду, чтобы заставить правителей города сдаться, либо внезапно выпускал на город потоки воды, что вызывало разрушительное наводнение. После этого атака всегда была обречена на успех.

Кодекс Хаммурапи — образец правовой модели

Сложный правовой кодекс Хаммурапи охватывал все вопросы жизнедеятельности государства: начиная от безопасности, строительства, принципов наследования, дисциплины, поведение рабов, налогов и заканчивая сборами, которые древние ветеринары должны были платить за право лечить быков и ослов. Это, конечно, не было первой в истории правовой системой, Хаммурапи фактически включил в свой кодекс законы, созданные предыдущими царями. Но главное было то, что он фактически реализовал идею общества, построенного на принципе закона и порядка, применимого ко всем.

Эксперты в этой области говорят, что там есть много законов, которые сегодня мы бы квалифицировали как суровые или варварские. Вместе с этим есть и другие, которые предполагают заботу о простых гражданах и ответственность за преступления и нарушения прав других людей. Правовая система Хаммурапи включала в себя привычные сегодня особенности, такие как принцип презумпции невиновности. Согласно этому принципу, для того, чтобы осудить человека, сначала надо было собрать доказательства его вины. Кроме этого, кодекс регулировал и предусматривал даже выплату алиментов.

Хаммурапи — великодушный правитель

В некотором смысле Кодекс Хаммурапи также был инструментом связи с общественностью, его способом тонко рекламировать себя как мудрого и доброго царя. С этой целью сохранившийся образец каменных столбов Хаммурапи изображает его встречу с Шамашем, вавилонским богом Справедливости. Царь хотел, чтобы подданные воспринимали его не только как великодушного правителя, защищающего своих граждан. Хаммурапи желал являть собой для своих граждан некий симбиоз богов на Земле, военного вождя, великого строителя и строгого, но справедливого судьи.

Хаммурапи был первопроходцем в сфере политической саморекламы. Тем не менее, созданный им имидж не был сплошной показухой. Он был по-настоящему доброжелательным правителем, который хотел, чтобы его подданные жили лучше. В переписке царя со своими должностными лицами он ясно даёт понять, что любой, кто посчитает, что суд несправедливо обошёлся с ним, может обратиться к своему царю за апелляцией. Как пишет его биограф Ван Де Миероп, «Хаммурапи гарантировал, что все люди будут оценены справедливо и не должны бояться его власти».

[источники]
Источник: https://kulturologia.ru/blogs/271020/47970/

Источник

Хаммурапи великий царь. Свод законов Древневавилонского царства

Хаммурапи легендарный царь. Реально существовавший и в то же время легендарный, царь Хаммурапи правил в XVIII веке до нашей эры.

Он был самым знаменитым и прославленным царем Вавилонии, а точнее сказать, Древневавилонского царства, но наука долгое время не выделяла его из ряда других выдающихся лиц вавилоно-ассирийской истории.

Лишь для библиологов он представлял интерес, так как имя его считалось тождественным библейскому «Амрафелу».

Следовательно, сам Хаммурапи был одним из четырех восточных царей, взявших при счастливом набеге на Палестину в плен Лота — племянника Авраама.

Хаммурапи — исторические сведения

Исторических сведений о Хаммурапи долгое время было очень мало, о его личности и времени его царствования сообщали только гимны, примерно десять небольших надписей на вещественных памятниках и около 50 писем царя к его вассалу (или наместнику).

Да и эти исторические свидетельства показывают нам царя уже возмужавшего, со вполне сложившимся характером. Как писал русский профессор И.М. Волков, это был правитель, который вполне усвоил политические задачи своего времени и решительно приступил к их осуществлению. Свергнув чужеземное иго и объединив разрозненные силы Вавилонии, он решился и на расширение территории своего царства за счет соседних государств.

В результате военных походов Хаммурапи объединил в своих державных руках большую часть тогдашнего цивилизованного мира ( распространил свое влияние почти на всю территорию Месопотамии и Элама, на Ассирию и даже Сирию). Продуманная система политических союзов помогла ему разгромить противников, причем нередко чужими руками. В конце концов Хаммурапи расправился и со своим главным союзником — царем северного государства Мари.

Кроме успешной внешней политики, Хаммурапи преуспел и на поприще внутреннего управления Вавилонией. Именно этой своей деятельностью он более всего и прославился.

Прославивший царя Хаммурапи свод законов был открыт французской научной экспедицией, которая в 1897 году начала раскопки в том месте, где некогда стояли Сузы — столица древнего Элама. Участники экспедиции, возглавляемой Ж. де Морганом, уже имели на своем счету целый ряд ценных находок, как вдруг в декабре 1901 года они наткнулись сначала на большой обломок из диорита, а через несколько дней откопали еще два обломка. Когда нее три обломка приложили друг к другу, из них составилась стела нысотой в 2,25 метра, а ширина ее равнялась от 1,65 метра вверху до 1,9 метра внизу.

Когда стелу привезли в Париж и выставили в Лувре, ее изучением занялся ученый-ассиролог Шейль. Для первого исследователя это было делом нелегким, Шейлю (а впоследствии и другим ученым) пришлось иметь дело с трудностями юридического и филологического характера, но результатом их исследований стали дешифровка, перевод и издание свода законов вавилонского царя.

бог Шамаш

На лицевой стороне стелы помещается художественно высеченное рельефное изображение бога Шамаша, сидящего на высоком троне, и стоящего перед ним царя Хаммурапи. Сидящий на троне бог одет в обычную вавилонскую одежду, отделанную оборками, на его голове — высокая четырехъярусная корона. Величаво протянутой вперед правой рукой бог Шамаш передает вавилонскому царю свиток со сводом законов. Хаммурапи стоит перед богом в обычной молитвенной позе, на нем — подвязанная поясом длинная туника и шапка с ободком.

Следующая за барельефом часть стелы и вся ее обратная сторона покрыты тщательно вырезанным, убористым и изящным клинообразным текстом на вавилоно-семитическом языке.

Текст состоит из ряда коротких колонок, идущих справа налево, причем клинообразные знаки читаются сверху вниз. Около 10 колонок надписи Хаммурапи посвятил перечислению своих титулов, прославлению покровительствовавших ему богов и прославлению своего величия, своей заботы о подданных, рассказу о распространении своего могущества.

«Я, Хаммурапи, — пастырь, избранный Энлилем, изливший богатство и изобилие, снабдивший всем Ниппур, связь небес и земли, славный покровитель Э-Кур, могучий царь, восстановивший Эриду, очистивший Э-Ансу, покоритель четырех стран Вселенной, возвеличивший имя Вавилона, возрадовавший сердце Мардука, своего владыки, все свои дни ходивший на поклонение в Э-Сагиль, царственный отпрыск… обогативший Ур, смиренный богомолец, снабжавший изобилием Кишширгал…

Мудрый царь, послушный слуга Шамаша, сильный, укрепивший основание Сиппара, одевший зеленью могилы Айи, возвеличивший Баббар подобно небесному жилищу, воитель, помиловавший Лар-су, владыка, царь царей, вечный царственный отпрыск, могущественный царь… давший жизнь Эреху, в изобилии снабжавший водой его жителей…

Когда Мардук призвал меня управлять народом и доставлять стране благополучие, я даровал право и законы на языке страны, создав этим благосостояние народа…

Чтобы сильный не обижал слабого, чтобы сироте и вдове оказывалась справедливость, я начертал в Вавилоне… для водворения права в стране, для решения тяжб в стране, для оказания справедливости притесненному, мои драгоценные слова на моем памятнике и поставил перед изображением меня, царя -законодателя…

Угнетенный, вовлеченный в тяжбу, пусть придет к изображению меня, царя-законодателя, и заставит прочесть ему мою надпись на памятнике. Он услышит мои драгоценные слова, и мой памятник объяснит ему дело. Он найдет свое право, даст своему сердцу вздохнуть свободно и скажет: «Поистине Хаммурапи — владыка, который для своего народа как бы отец во плоти… доставил навсегда благоденствие народу, правил страною справедливо».

Далее клинописный текст рассказывает о том, что вавилонский царь призывает благословение на почитателей и исполнителей но-ного законодательства и проклятия на его нарушителей.

«Если же этот человек не будет соблюдать мои слова, написанные мною на моем памятнике, не обратит внимание на мое проклятие, не побоится проклятия богов, отменит данное мною законодательство, исказит мои слова, изменит мои начертания… то будет ли это царь или вельможа, или наместник, или простолюдин, или другое лицо, каким бы именем оно ни называлось, — пусть великий Ану, отец богов, призвавший меня царствовать, лишит его царского величия, сломает его жезл, проклянет его судьбу.

Энлиль, владыка, определяющий судьбы… да поднимет против него в его доме неподавляемые смуты, ведущие к его гибели, да назначит ему в качестве судьбы жалкое правление, немногие дни жизни, годы дороговизны, беспросветную тьму, внезапную смерть…».

Остальная часть надписи (кроме 7 выскобленных колонок) занята 247 статьями законодательства. Данная стела была своего рода торжественным заявлением Хаммурапи перед подданными о вступлении в силу начертанных на ней законов. После «издания» и обнародования в храме Эсагиле оригинал был воспроизведен во множестве копий, которые были разосланы во все части огромной империи вавилонского царя.

Дошедший до нас экземпляр и является одной из таких копий, которая была выставлена в Сиппаре. Во время одного из набегов на Вавилон эламцев эта стела со сводом законов была выкопана и в качестве военного трофея увезена в Сузы. Скорее всего эламский военачальник-победитель и приказал выскоблить семь колонок текста, чтобы потом выбить на этом месте (по обычаю того времени) свое имя в память о собственных победах. Тексты выскобленных колонок частично были восполнены надписями на глиняных табличках, которые были найдены во дворце царя Ашшурбанипала.

По своему составу вавилонский свод законов распадается на три части — введение, сами статьи законов и заключение. Введение, о котором мы говорили выше, очень важно для ученых обилием сообщаемых исторических намеков и географических указателей.

Само законодательство начинается пятью положениями о нарушении порядка судопроизводства: две статьи об обвинителе-клеветнике, две — о лжесвидетелях и одна для самим судьей.

«Если судья вынесет приговор, постановит решение, изготовит документ, а потом изменит свои приговор, то, по изобличении его в изменении приговора, этот судья должен уплатить в двенадцатикратном размере иск, предъявленный в этом судебном деле; а также должен быть публично свергнут со своего судейского стула и никогда вновь не садиться с судьями для суда».

В следующих статьях идет речь о преступлениях против частной собственности — о краже, купле-продаже краденого, похищении людей, бегстве и уводе рабов, ночной краже со взломом, грабеже и т.д. Вот, например, некоторые статьи законов царя Хаммурапи.

СВОД ЗАКОНОВ ЦАРЯ Хаммурапи

«Если кто-нибудь украдет храмовое или дворцовое имущество, то его должно предать смерти; смерти должен быть предан и тот, кто примет из его рук украденное.

Если кто-нибудь украдет малолетнего сына другого, то его должно предать смерти.

Если кто-нибудь, укрыв в своем доме беглого раба, принадлежащего дворцу или вольноотпущеннику, не выдаст его на требование нагира, то этого домохозяина должно предать смерти.

Если кто-нибудь, поймав в поле беглого раба или рабыню, доставит его хозяину, то хозяин должен уплатить ему два сикля серебра.

Если кто-нибудь сделает пролом в доме, то его убивают и зарывают перед этим проломом.

Если кто-нибудь совершит грабеж: и будет пойман, то его должно предать смерти.

Если в чьем-нибудь доме вспыхнет огонь, и кто-нибудь, при-шедши тушить его, обратит свой взор на что-нибудь из имущества домохозяина и присвоит себе что-нибудь из имущества домохозяина, то этого человека бросают в этот же огонь.

Если кто-нибудь, взявши поле для обработки, не вырастит на нем хлеба, то, по изобличении его в этом, он должен отдать хозяину поля хлеб, сообразно с приростом у соседа.

Если кто-нибудь, открыв свой водоем для орошения, по небрежности допустит, что водою будет затоплено соседнее поле, то он обязан отмерить хлеб, сообразно с приростом у своего соседа.

Если кто-нибудь срубит в чьем-нибудь саду дерево без дозволения хозяина сада, то он должен уплатить полмины серебра.

Если в доме корчемницы соберутся преступники, и она не задержит этих преступников и не выдаст дворцу, то эту корчемницу должно предать смерти.

Если кто-нибудь, протянув палец против божьей сестры или чьей-нибудь жены, окажется неправым, то этого человека должно повергнуть перед судьями и остричь ему волосы.

Если чья-нибудь жена будет захвачена лежащею с другим мужчиной, то должно, связавши, бросить их в воду. Если муж пощадит жизнь своей жены, то и царь пощадит жизнь своего раба.

Если чья-нибудь жена умертвит своего мужа из-за другого мужчины, то ее должно посадить на кол.

Если сын ударит своего отца, то ему должно отрезать руки.

Если кто-нибудь ударит по щеке лицо высшего положения, то должно публично ударить его шестьдесят раз плетью из воловьей кожи.

Протянуть палец — несправедливо обвинить, оклеветать. Волосы остригали на висках в знак бесчестия.

Если врач, снимая бронзовым ножом бельмо с глаза пациента, повредит глаз, то должен уплатить деньгами половину его стоимости».

Свод законов царя Хаммурапи представляет собой приведение в известном порядке случаев из судебной практики, взятых из древневавилонского уголовного и гражданского права. Может быть, не во всех сферах жизни (как бы мы сказали сегодня) вавилонскому царю удалось навести порядок, но он был первым правителем древности, кто соразмерил с властью царя силу закона и признал за подданными право самим заботиться о своей жизни.

Хаммурапи постановил, чтобы наказание виновному определял не сам пострадавший и не его родственник, а государственный орган именем правителя.

Впервые представив в судопроизводстве гражданское право, Хаммурапи воздвиг себе памятник такой же вечный, как та плита из диорита, на которой он повелел изобразить себя рядом с богом Солнца и справедливости Шамашем.

Хаммурапи великий царь видео

Источник

Александр Андреевич Майер

Эксперт по предмету «История»

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Вавилон и его правители

Замечание 1

Вавилон, один из самых величественных городов древней Месопотамии, столица государства Вавилония, располагался в области Аккад, являлся главным экономическим, политическим и культурным центром всей древнейшей цивилизации, многие историки называют его «первым мегаполисом».

Рисунок 1. Вавилон. Автор24 — интернет-биржа студенческих работ

Хронология истории Вавилонского царства выглядит очень внушительно, всё царство в своём развитии прошло через три периода: «старовавилонский», «средневавилонский» и «нововавилонский», в течение которых у власти побывало несколько династий, основателем же древнего государства Вавилония считают Нимрода.

Замечание 2

Нимрод (также в исторических источниках известен под именем Амрафель ) – легендарный первый царь Вавилонии.

Династии правителей древнего Вавилона:

Самая первая Иссинская династия, 2017-1794 гг. до н. э. была у власти 223 года.
Династия Ларсы, 2025-1763 гг. до н. э., правила 262 года.
Первая Вавилонская династия,1894-1595 гг. до н. э., у власти 299 лет.
Династия касситов, 1595-1155 гг. до н. э., просуществовала 440 лет.
Вторая Иссинская династия, 1155-1027 гг. до н. э., правила 128 лет.
Династия Приморья, 1026-1006 гг. до н. э., у власти была 20 лет.
Династия Бази, 1004-986 гг. до н. э., правила 19 лет.
Династия Элама, 985-980 гг. до н. э., правила всего 5 лет.
Девятая Вавилонская династия, 731-627 гг. до н. э., правила 104 года.
Династия Нового Вавилона, 626–538 гг. до н. э., просуществовала 88 лет.

Во главе Вавилонии всегда стоял царь, обладавший неограниченной властью. В руках царя были сосредоточены в разное время от 30 до 50 % всех земельных участков. Свои участки, как правило, правитель сдавать в аренду на очень выгодных условиях, царь также стоял во главе всего бюрократического аппарата. За исполнением приказов царя и выполнением всех указов следил государственный суд.

«Царство древнего Вавилона» 👇

Что касается финансово-налоговой службы, то в её ведении полностью находилась вся система по взысканию налогов. В свою, очередь власть делала ставку на армию, которая представляла собой отряды хорошо вооруженных воинов. В древнем Вавилоне профессия военного считалась очень почетной, поскольку «служащие» в виде оплаты труда получали земельные участки, а особо доблестные воины награждались домами, садами и даже крупнорогатым скотом.

Женщины в древнем Вавилоне занимали особое место в обществе. Несмотря на существенное ущемление их прав, вавилонские женщины могли распоряжаться своим приданым без участия своих родственников и иметь права на имущество, нажитое во время замужества. Удивительно, но женщины, обладающие деловой хваткой, могли сколотить себе неплохое состояние, и ни от кого не зависеть, что многие и делали.

Самые известные цари Вавилона

Более подробно остановимся на самых влиятельных правителях, оставшихся в истории благодаря своему грамотному подходу к управлению древним государством.

Агум II правил Вавилонией в 1595–1571 годах до н.э. Агум считается основателем касситской династии, своим появлением он открыл новый этап в истории древнего государства, много сделал, чтобы касситы быстро прониклись вавилонской культурой и приняли религию своей новой родины.

Касситы пользовались законодательным опытом своих предшественников, при них появился новый тип надписей – «кудурру» или каменные столбы, с изображением символов богов. Коренным жителям за небольшой срок пришлось смириться с владычеством переселенцев, ведь Агуму удалось вернуть на родину священные для жителей древнего Вавилона реликвии – золотую статую Мардука и изваяние его супруги Царпанит, которые ранее были захвачены и увезены из Вавилона хеттами. Кроме этого, царь много сделал для того, чтобы за короткий срок заново отстроить разграбленные городские храмы и украсить их, что потребовало очень больших финансовых затрат.

Во время правления династии касситов вавилоняне начали использовать лошадей и мулов в своих военных походах, применятьт плуги, строить дороги. При них активизируется торговля, особенно внешняя, однако, со временем количество военных походов уменьшилось, что привело к застою экономики, так как уменьшился приток рабочей силы. Центральная власть при царствовании касситов заметно ослабла, связано это с тем, что главари богатой знати использовали свою самостоятельность и правили лишь определенными частями вавилонского государства.

Начиная с 1792 по 1750 гг. до н. э. древним государством управлял великий царь Хаммурапи, больше всего он запомнился в истории тем, что придумал и ввёл в действие очень строгую, но в то же время и очень справедливую систему законов, которые были не похожи на другие законы древнего мира. В настоящее время они известны нам, как «Свод законов Хаммурапи» или «Кодекс Хаммурапи», который состоял из 282 законов, — по ним жили, работали, вели свое хозяйство, и даже торговали все жители Вавилонии.

С большим трудом наведя порядок в столице и крупных городах, новый царь Самсу-илун из последних сил пытался сохранить великое государство, считавшееся нерушимым, несмотря на свои усилия Самсу-илун все же уступил свое влияние на юге Месопотамии, стремительно увеличившему свои территории Эламу, в результате чего Вавилон безвозвратно утратил свои некогда завоеванные шумерские города.

Замечание 3

Элам – древнее государство, располагался он на юго-западе современного Ирана.

Одним из великих правителей древнего Вавилона был Навуходоносор, который находился у власти с сентября 605 г. по 562 до н. э., при его царствовании Вавилон завоевал всю Месопотамию и весь Ближний Восток, при нем Вавилон превратился в развивающуюся страну, полностью возродился и достиг своего расцвета, в нем активно развивалась культура и искусство.

До сих пор идут споры среди историков по поводу того, кто же был последним царем древнего Вавилона, в Библии говорится о том, что самым последним царем был сын Навуходоносора. Другие же источники говорят о том, что последним правил Вавилонией Валтасар сын Набонида – последнего правителя, сам Набонид занимался поиском древних реликвий и был очень религиозен, во время своих отъездов часто оставлял вместо себя царевича Валтасара.

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Биография

Истории известны два правителя, чье имя Навуходоносор. Но если первый жил в XII веке до нашей эры и не оставил следов в мировой культуре, то Навуходоносор II, царствовавший в VII-VI веках до нынешнего летоисчисления, «наследил» так, что попал на страницы Библии. Имя правителя ставят в один ряд с Юлием Цезарем, Александром Македонским и Митридатом. Современники же разглядели в древнем вавилонском царе черты Наполеона.

Навуходоносор и Семирамида в колеснице

Прославился властитель возведением сразу двух чудес света – Вавилонской башни и Висячих садов Семирамиды. А еще – таинственной болезнью, которая мучила Навуходоносора 7 лет и превратилась в назидательную библейскую притчу, знать которую не мешало бы каждому облаченному властью человеку.

Детство и юность

Точной даты рождения сына основателя Нововавилонского (или Халдейского) царства Набопаласара нет. Называют приблизительную дату появления Набу-кудурри-усур (так правильно звучит имя Навуходоносора): до 630 г. до н.э. Спустя 20 лет царевич уже занимал важный военный пост и участвовал в походах отца.

Навуходоносор

Потомок и яркий представитель династии разительно отличался от родителя: если Набопаласар не отдалялся от народа и подчеркивал простое происхождение, то сын указывал на свои божественные корни, называя себя потомком Нарам-Суэна, царя-легенды.

О детстве наследного принца ничего не известно, но в юности он активно постигал искусство ведения войны, и в 607-606 годах до н.э. на пару с родителем командовал армией.

Исторические факты

В наши дни Навуходоносора II назвали бы эффективным менеджером или блестящим управленцем. Начав биографию с успешных военных походов, он вскоре многое изменил в социальном и правовом устройстве Вавилонии. Молодой Навуходоносор прославился захватническими походами на Ближний Восток. Трижды вторгался в Иудею и брал Иерусалим.

Изображение Навуходоносора на монете

Во время последнего завоевания города Навуходоносор уничтожил его, до основания разрушив Храм Соломона. «Вавилонское пленение», вошедшее в трагические скрижали истории евреев, означает обращение в рабство выживших граждан Иудеи.

Полководцу Навуходоносору, в отличие от отца, удалось нанести сокрушительный удар по египтянам, ранее досаждавшим Вавилону опустошительными набегами. В 605 г. до н э. царевич по поручению отца отправился воевать с Нехо, фараоном Египта. Во власти Нехо тогда были более слабые Палестина, Сирия и Финикийское государство.

Дворец Навуходоносора

Навуходоносор с войском форсировал Евфрат и неожиданно нанес удар по лагерю египтян, расположившемуся под стенами своего главного оплота – города-крепости Кархемыш. Вавилонский полководец разбил войско фараона, уничтожив две трети состава.

Во время военного похода, в середине августа 605 г. до н.э., Навуходоносор узнал о кончине родителя. Он вернулся в Вавилон и спустя 3 недели короновался. Молниеносное вступление в права и незамедлительное возвращение в ряды войска показали, что государство оказалось в крепких руках.

За три года армия Навуходоносора, в которой воевали и греческие наемники, покорила Сирию, Палестину, Иудею и еще несколько мелких царств. Но в 600 году удача отвернулась от императора, и после болезненных поражений он вернулся в Вавилон, чтобы восполнить утраты человеческие и материальные.

Ново-Вавилонское царство Навуходоносора

Спустя 3 года вавилонский царь сумел вернуть под свое покровительство Иудею, приняв в середине марта 597 г. до н.э. капитуляцию царя Иоакима, открывшего ворота перед войском Навуходоносора. Самого Иоакима завоеватель не помиловал, предав его казни.

В периоды затишья между военными походами и подавлениями бунтов оппозиции в Вавилоне Навуходоносор обустраивал государство. Его достижения запечатлены на глиняных табличках, найденных археологами. Записи говорят о том, что император заново отстроил разрушенный набегами египтян и иных недругов Вавилон, превратив его в центр международной торговли.

Женившись на дочери мидийского царя Амитис (более известной как Семирамида), любящий супруг подарил жене, тосковавшей по гористой и зеленой родине, «висячие сады». Дошедшие сведения описывают их как 4-ярусную пирамиду из платформ, поддерживаемых колоннами. Платформы покрыли тростником вперемешку с асфальтом, затем кирпичами, которые скрепили гипсовым раствором. Поверх уложили плиты из свинца, а на них слой плодородной земли.

Висячие сады Семирамиды

На ярусах росли пахучие травы, цветы, кустарники и деревья. Семена и саженцы для чудесного сада свезли со всех концов империи. Полив происходил путем подачи воды из Евфрата насосами через поддерживающие колонны. Огромная «клумба» с орошаемыми круглый год растениями получила у современников название Висячие сады Семирамиды.

Благодарная супруга родила царю нескольких детей, но история уберегла лишь имя главного наследника – сына Амель-Мардука.

Последним, кто насладился красотами и ароматами «висячих садов», был Александр Македонский, захвативший Вавилон в 331 г. до н.э. Под сенью этих деревьев он и скончался. После смерти Александра сады Семирамиды пришли в упадок. Наводнения подмыли фундамент, и платформы рухнули.

Вавилонская башня

Не менее «висячих садов» известен и 90-метровый зиккурат Этеменанки, ставший прообразом Вавилонской башни. Навуходоносор возвел в городе, который населяли 200 тыс. человек, несколько роскошных дворцов. На окраине Вавилона обустроил главное святилище под названием Эсагила, единым комплексом с которым и оказался 7-этажный зиккурат Этеменанки, построенный в виде ступенчатой пирамиды. В библейской истории пирамида получила название «Вавилонской башни». Современники признали ее еще одним чудом света, появившимся благодаря Навуходоносору.

Уникальным по красоте памятником зодчества времен вавилонского царя по праву назвали ворота Иштар – огромную арку, открывавшую туннель вдоль дорожки для императорских шествий. Строение покрывала глазурь небесного, ярко-желтого, белого и черного цветов, барельефы животных. Архитектурное чудо дожило до наших дней.

Библейская история

В Ветхом Завете царь вавилонский и ассирийский отображен как поработитель и тиран еврейского народа. Если верить написанному, то в последние годы правления Навуходоносор, возомнивший себя Богом, заболел страшной и странной болезнью, которая мучила его 7 лет.

Даниил трактует Навуходоносору сон

В книге пророка Даниила говорится, что император, окинув взором возведенные при его правлении дворцы, храмы и кварталы Вавилона, возгордился, сравнив свою власть над подопечными с божественной. За это Творец послал ему в наказание хворь: отлученный от людей Навуходоносор, подобно животному, ел траву. Голова покрылась львиной гривой, а на руках и ногах выросли когти, как у птицы.

Современные ученые распознали в описываемых симптомах форму психоза, названную ликантропией. Это психопатическое состояние человека, которому кажется, что он превратился в животное. Тяжелая стадия заболевания подразумевает подражание больного зверю. Человек передвигается на четвереньках или, уподобляясь птице, «машет» руками-крыльями, пытаясь взлететь.

Навуходоносор на гравюре Уильяма Блейка

Ученые и историки спорят, мог ли Навуходоносор, пребывая в таком состоянии, править 7 лет и не быть сверженным аристократией, жрецами и народом. Сторонники библейской истории о «царе-оборотне» предполагают, что рассудок Навуходоносора действительно помутился, о чем, выздоровев, он косвенно указал в сохранившихся письменных сведениях.

Верующие назвали болезнь царя «промыслом Божьим», а выздоровление связали с осознанием Навуходоносора своей ничтожности перед Творцом. Ужасающий вид заболевшего вавилонского царя современники созерцают на гравюре английского поэта и художника Уильяма Блейка, хранящейся в Галерее Тейт.

Память

К образу и личности Навуходоносора неоднократно обращались художники, литераторы и скульпторы, отображая легендарного царя в своих произведениях. «О Навуходоносоре царе, о теле злате и о триех отроцех, в пещи не сожженных» написал в своей комедии Симеон Полоцкий.
Поэт, художник и гравер Уильям Блейк создал галерею монотипий (печатных гравюр), посвятив ее Навуходоносору.

Увертюра к опере «Набукко» Джузеппе Верди

«Набукко» (другое название «Навуходоносор») — опера Джузеппе Верди на либретто Темистокле Солеа, премьера которой состоялась в театре «Ла Скала» в 1842 году.
В Книге Юдифи Навуходоносор представлен царем Ассирии, резиденция которого находится в Ниневии. Согласно Книге Товита «Навуходоносор и Асуир» были теми, кто захватил Ниневию.
Исламская традиция знает Навуходоносора под именем Бухт Нассар, называя его сатрапом Сасанидского государства, воевавшим с арабами и египтянами, изгнавшим 18 тыс. евреев и выбросившим Тору в колодец.

Источник

Правитель Вавилона

Успехи Хаммурапи

Великий строитель

Кто такой Хаммурапи?

Когда правил Хаммупапи?

Чем прославился Хаммурапи?

Какие законы ввел Хаммурапи?

Introduction[edit]

Royal titles[edit]

Role and legitimacy[edit]

Dynasties[edit]

Sources[edit]

Kingship after the Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit]

Names in cuneiform[edit]

Dynasty I (Amorite), 1894–1595 BC[edit]

Dynasty II (1st Sealand), 1725–1475 BC[edit]

Dynasty III (Kassite), 1729–1155 BC[edit]

Dynasty IV (2nd Isin), 1153–1022 BC[edit]

Dynasty V (2nd Sealand), 1021–1001 BC[edit]

Dynasty VI (Bazi), 1000–981 BC[edit]

Dynasty VII (Elamite), 980–975 BC[edit]

Dynasty VIII (E), 974–732 BC[edit]

Dynasty IX (Assyrian), 732–626 BC[edit]

Dynasty X (Chaldean), 626–539 BC[edit]

Babylon under foreign rule, 539 BC – AD 224[edit]

Dynasty XI (Achaemenid), 539–331 BC[edit]

Dynasty XII (Argead), 331–305 BC[edit]

Dynasty XIII (Seleucid), 305–141 BC[edit]

Dynasty XIV (Arsacid), 141 BC – AD 224[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

Web sources[edit]

Introduction[edit]

Royal titles[edit]

Role and legitimacy[edit]

Dynasties[edit]

Sources[edit]

Kingship after the Neo-Babylonian Empire[edit]

Names in cuneiform[edit]

Dynasty I (Amorite), 1894–1595 BC[edit]

Dynasty II (1st Sealand), 1725–1475 BC[edit]

Dynasty III (Kassite), 1729–1155 BC[edit]

Dynasty IV (2nd Isin), 1153–1022 BC[edit]

Dynasty V (2nd Sealand), 1021–1001 BC[edit]

Dynasty VI (Bazi), 1000–981 BC[edit]

Dynasty VII (Elamite), 980–975 BC[edit]

Dynasty VIII (E), 974–732 BC[edit]

Dynasty IX (Assyrian), 732–626 BC[edit]

Dynasty X (Chaldean), 626–539 BC[edit]

Babylon under foreign rule, 539 BC – AD 224[edit]

Dynasty XI (Achaemenid), 539–331 BC[edit]

Dynasty XII (Argead), 331–305 BC[edit]

Dynasty XIII (Seleucid), 305–141 BC[edit]

Dynasty XIV (Arsacid), 141 BC – AD 224[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

Web sources[edit]

Хаммурапи — строитель и завоеватель

Кодекс Хаммурапи — образец правовой модели

Хаммурапи — великодушный правитель

Хаммурапи великий царь. Свод законов Древневавилонского царства

Хаммурапи — исторические сведения

бог Шамаш

СВОД ЗАКОНОВ ЦАРЯ Хаммурапи

Хаммурапи великий царь видео

Вавилон и его правители

Самые известные цари Вавилона

Биография

Детство и юность

Исторические факты

Библейская история

Память