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The Holy Prophet Muhammad
مُحَمَّد
«Muhammad, the Messenger of God.» inscribed on the gates of the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina
Personal
Born	c. 570 CE (53 BH)[1] Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Died	8 June 632 (11 AH) (aged 61–62) Taybah, Hejaz, Arabia
Resting place	Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina, Arabia 24°28′03″N 39°36′41″E / 24.46750°N 39.61139°E
Spouse	See Muhammad’s wives
Children	See Muhammad’s children
Parent(s)	Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father) Amina bint Wahb (mother)
Known for	Founding Islam
Other names	Rasūl Allāh (Messenger of God) (see Names and titles of Muhammad)
Relatives	Family tree of Muhammad, Ahl al-Bayt  («Family of the House»)
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)	Muḥammad
Patronymic (Nasab)	Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭālib ibn Hāshim ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy ibn Kilāb
Teknonymic (Kunya)	ʾAbu al-Qāsim
Epithet (Laqab)	Ḵātam an-Nabiyyīn (Seal of the Prophets)

Muhammad^[a] (Arabic: مُحَمَّد; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)^[b] was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam.^[c] According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.^[2][3][4] He is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets within Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.

Muhammad was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.^[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad’s birth. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.^[5] He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.^[6] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave^[1] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,^[7] Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly,^[8] proclaiming that «God is One», that complete «submission» (islām) to God is the right way of life (dīn),^[9] and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.^[10][3][11]

Muhammad’s followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.^[12][13]

The revelations (each known as Ayah — literally, «Sign [of God]») that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim «Word of God» on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad’s teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law (see Sharia).

Names and appellations

The name Muhammad (^[14]) means «praiseworthy» in Arabic. It appears four times in the Quran.^[15] The Quran also addresses Muhammad in the second person by various appellations; prophet, messenger, servant of God (‘abd), announcer (bashir),^[16] witness (shahid),^[17] bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),^[18] reminder (mudhakkir),^[19] one who calls [unto God] (dā’ī),^[20] light personified (noor),^[21] and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir).^[22]

Sources of biographical information

Quran

The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.^[23][24][25] The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad’s chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context.^[26][27]

Early biographies

Important sources regarding Muhammad’s life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).^[28] These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about Muhammad’s life.^[29]

The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq’s Life of God’s Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari.^[30][31] However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq’s biography that «would distress certain people».^[32] Another early history source is the history of Muhammad’s campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 AH), and the work of Waqidi’s secretary Ibn Sa’d al-Baghdadi (death 230 AH).^[28]

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable.^[30] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been only subject to «tendential shaping».^[33]

Hadith

Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni.^[34][35]

Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources.^[34] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.^[36] Muslim scholars on the other hand typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.^[37]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Yathrib. Yathrib was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.^[38] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal affiliation, whether based on kinship or alliances, was an important source of social cohesion.^[39] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.^[40]

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.^[d] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who «professed a rigid monotheism»^[41] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.^[42][43] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham,^[e] although no known evidence exists for a historical Abraham or Ishmael, and the links are based solely on tradition instead of historical records.^[44]

The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.^[45] Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.^[46] Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area.^[46] In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.^[46]

During the early years of Muhammad’s life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.^[47] They formed the cult association of hums, which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.^[48] To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.^[48] Thus, although the association of hums was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.^[48]

Life

Childhood and early life

Timeline of Muhammad’s life
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad
Date	Age	Event
c. 570	–	Death of his father, Abdullah
c. 570	0	Possible date of birth: 12 or 17 Rabi al Awal: in Mecca, Arabia
c. 577	6	Death of his mother, Amina
c. 583	12–13	His grandfather transfers him to Syria
c. 595	24–25	Meets and marries Khadijah
c. 599	28–29	Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima Zahra
610	40	Qur’anic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabal an-Nour, the «Mountain of Light» near Mecca. At age 40, Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) was said to appear to Muhammad on the mountain and call him «the Prophet of Allah»
Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca
c. 613	43	Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans
c. 614	43–44	Heavy persecution of Muslims begins
c. 615	44–45	Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia
c. 616	45–46	Banu Hashim clan boycott begins
619	49	Banu Hashim clan boycott ends
The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die
c. 620	49–50	Isra and Mi’raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God)
622	51–52	Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib)
624	53–54	Battle of Badr
625	54–55	Battle of Uhud
627	56–57	Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina)
628	57–58	The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
630	59–60	Conquest of Mecca
632	61–62	Farewell pilgrimage, event of Ghadir Khumm, and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia
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Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim^[49] was born in Mecca^[50] about the year 570^[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi’ al-awwal.^[51] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca’s prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad’s early lifetime.^[11][f] Tradition places the year of Muhammad’s birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen’s king, who supplemented his army with elephants.^[52][53][54]

Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.^[6]

Muhammad’s father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.^[56] According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition’s historicity.^[57] Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan.^[57][58] For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.^[6] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, «Muhammad’s guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time.»^[59]

In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade.^[59] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans’ caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad’s career as a prophet of God.^[60]

Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.^[59] It is known that he became a merchant and «was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.»^[61] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname «al-Amin» (Arabic: الامين), meaning «faithful, trustworthy» and «al-Sadiq» meaning «truthful»^[62] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.^[11][63] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.^[61]

Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.^[64][65]

Beginnings of the Quran

Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as «sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell». Aisha reported, «I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)».^[74] According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.^[11] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.^[75] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70,^[76] Quran 6:19).^[77] Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad’s contemporaries of similar calamities.^[78] Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God’s revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God. Muhammad’s mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.^[78]

The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God’s final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise, and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not committing female infanticide.^[11]

Opposition

According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad’s wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.^[79] She was followed by Muhammad’s ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.^[79] Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.^[8][80] Most Meccans ignored and mocked him, though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.^[81]

According to Ibn Saad, opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers.^[82] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public preaching.^[83] As his followers increased, Muhammad became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Kaaba.^[81] Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants, as well as an advantageous marriage. He refused both of these offers.^[81]

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad and his followers.^[11] Sumayyah bint Khayyat, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.^[84][85]

In 615, some of Muhammad’s followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.^[11] Ibn Sa’ad mentions two separate migrations. According to him, most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while a second group rejoined them in Yathrib. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, however, only talk about one migration to Ethiopia. These accounts agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in Muhammad’s decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia. According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al-Tabari, the majority of Muslims returned to their native town as Islam gained strength and as high ranking Meccans, such as Umar and Hamzah, converted.^[86]

However, there is a completely different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this account—initially mentioned by Al-Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa’ad and Tabari, but not by Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq.^[11] Muhammad, desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammad retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself. Instead, a ridicule of these gods was offered.^[87][h][i] This episode, known as «The Story of the Cranes,» is also known as «Satanic Verses». According to the story, this led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Abyssinia Muslims began to return home. When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muhammad that the two verses were not part of the revelation, but had been inserted by Satan. Notable scholars at the time argued against the historic authenticity of these verses and the story itself on various grounds.^[88][11][j] Al-Waqidi was severely criticized by Islamic scholars such as Malik ibn Anas, al-Shafi’i, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-Nasa’i, al-Bukhari, Abu Dawood, Al-Nawawi and others as a liar and forger.^{[89][90][91][92]} Later, the incident received some acceptance among certain groups, though strong objections to it continued onwards past the tenth century. The objections continued until rejection of these verses and the story itself eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.^[93]

In 616 (or 617), the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.^[94][95] During this time, Muhammad was able to preach only during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs were suspended.

Isra and Mi’raj

Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi’raj, a miraculous night-long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel. At the journey’s beginning, the Isra, he is said to have traveled from Mecca on a winged steed to «the farthest mosque.» Later, during the Mi’raj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.^{[citation needed]} Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad, presents the event as a spiritual experience; later historians, such as Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, present it as a physical journey.^{[citation needed]}

Some western scholars^[who?] hold that the Isra and Mi’raj journey traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); later traditions indicate Muhammad’s journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.^{[97][page needed]}

Last years before Hijra

Muhammad’s wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the «Year of Sorrow». With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterward, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan’s protection over Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Ta’if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.^[11][95] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut’im ibn Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.^[11][95]

Many people visited Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).^[11] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.^[11] They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Yathrib; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the «Second Pledge of al-‘Aqaba«, or, in Orientalists’ view, the «Pledge of War«.^[99] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.^[100]

Hijra

The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Yathrib,^[101] 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.^[102]

Migration to Medina

Timeline of Muhammad in Medina
624	53–54	Invasion of Sawiq
Al Kudr Invasion
Raid on Dhu Amarr, Muhammad raids Ghatafan tribes
625	54–55	Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims
Invasion of Hamra al-Asad, successfully terrifies the enemy to cause a retreat
Assassination of Khaled b. Sufyan
Tragedy of al Raji and Bir Maona
Banu Nadir expelled after Invasion
626	55–56	Expedition of Badr al-Maw’id, Dhat al-Riqa and Dumat al-Jandal
627	56–57	Battle of the Trench
Invasion of Banu Qurayza, successful siege
628	57–58	Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, gains access to Kaaba
Conquest of the Khaybar oasis
629	58–59	First hajj pilgrimage
Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mu’tah
630	59–60	Bloodless conquest of Mecca
Battle of Hunayn
Siege of Ta’if
Attack on Byzantine Empire successful: Expedition of Tabuk
631	60–61	Rules most of the Arabian peninsula
632	61–62	Farewell hajj pilgrimage
Death, on June 8 in Medina
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A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Yathrib, invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as a neutral outsider.^[103][104] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620.^[103] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu’ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.^[103] The delegation from Yathrib pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.^[11]

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Yathrib, until nearly all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.^[105] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).^[11]

Establishment of a new polity

Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Yathrib was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina, «establishing a kind of alliance or federation» among the eight Yathrib tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca; this specified rights and duties of all citizens, and the relationship of the different communities in Yathrib (including the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the Jews and other «Peoples of the Book»).^[103][104] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.^[11]

The first group of converts to Islam in Yathrib were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.^[106] This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Yathrib, with some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa’d ibn Mu’adh (a prominent Yathrib leader) to Islam.^[107] People of Yathrib who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).^[11] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother.^[108]

Beginning of armed conflict

Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Yathrib.^[109] War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans.^[110] According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Yathrib, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.^[111]

Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.^[112] In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.^[113] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.^[114] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.^[115] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed.^{[116][117][118]} Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith^[11] and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.^[119]

The victory strengthened Muhammad’s position in Yathrib and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.^[120] As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu ‘Afak of the ‘Amr b. ‘Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.^[121] They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of the killings.^[121] This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication.^[122] Most members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.^[123]

Muhammad expelled from Yathrib the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,^[11] but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad’s death.^[124] According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Yathrib.^[125] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz.^[11]

Conflict with Mecca

The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.^[126] In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Yathrib while Muhammad led expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.^[127] Abu Sufyan gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Yathrib.^[128]

A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army’s presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Yathrib and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625.^[129][130] Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza, Muhammad’s uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.^[131][132] The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Yathrib that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.^[133]

Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Yathrib. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Yathrib; using propaganda about Muhammad’s weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery.^[134] Muhammad’s new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Yathrib were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up.^[134] Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Yathrib, and reacted in a severe manner.^[135] One example is the assassination of Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans’ grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.^[136][137] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Yathrib^[138] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad’s attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies.^[139]

Battle of the Trench

With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Yathrib lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Yathrib began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.^[140] Abu Sufyan’s troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.^[k] The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.^[83]
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Yathrib, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad’s scouts.^[141] After the coalition’s retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.^[142][143] Walid N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq’s narrative.^[144] Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq’s Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of «odd tales» by the later Ibn Hajar.^[145] Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.^[146][147] Watt finds Arafat’s arguments «not entirely convincing», while Meir J. Kister has contradicted^{[clarification needed]} the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.^[148]

In the siege of Yathrib, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.^[149] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.^[11] While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad’s wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha’s innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).^[150] Following the battle, Muhammad renamed Yathrib to Taybah.^[151][152]

Truce of Hudaybiyyah

Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,^[154] the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.^[155] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca.^[156] According to Watt, although Muhammad’s decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion.^[156]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the «Pledge of Acceptance» or the «Pledge under the Tree». News of Uthman’s safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.^[156][158] The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad’s pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Taybah without permission from their protector.^[156]

Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura «Al-Fath» (The Victory) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one.^[159] It was later that Muhammad’s followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Taybah to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals.^[11]

After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.^[128][160] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).^{[11][161][162]} He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.^[161][162] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu’tah.^[163]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years.^[164][165] The tribe of Banu Khuza’a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the Meccans.^[164][165] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza’a, killing a few of them.^[164][165] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.^[164] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay blood money for the slain among the Khuza’ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.^[166]

The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.^[166] Soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad.

Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.^[167] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of Mecca.^[168] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were «guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace».^[169] Some of these were later pardoned.^[170] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.^[171] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased.^[172] The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.^[83][173]

Conquest of Arabia

Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad’s. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta’if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.^[174] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.^[11]

In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu’tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them. Although Muhammad did not engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.^[11][175]

He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to accept the city’s surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the statue of their goddess Al-Lat.^{[112][176][177]}

A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war.^[11] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad required a military and political agreement according to which they «acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy.»^[178]

Farewell pilgrimage

In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Yathrib, Muhammad completed his first true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.^[11] On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety and good action.^[179] He abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male followers to «be good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God’s trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words …» He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.^[180][181] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: «Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you».^[182][11] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad’s successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Taybah.^[l]

Death and tomb

A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Taybah, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.^[183] With his head resting on Aisha’s lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words:

O Allah, to Ar-Rafiq Al-A’la (exalted friend, highest Friend or the uppermost, highest Friend in heaven).^{[184][185][186]}

— Muhammad

According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad’s death may be presumed to have been caused by Medinan fever exacerbated by physical and mental fatigue.^[187] Academics Reşit Haylamaz and Fatih Harpci say that Ar-Rafiq Al-A’la is referring to God.^[188]

Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha’s house.^{[11][189][190]} During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad’s tomb.^[191] The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.^[192] Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.^{[190][193][194]}

When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad’s tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.^[195] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud’s followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,^[195] and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.^[196] Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.^{[197][198][199]} In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.^[196] Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the tomb.^[200][201]

After Muhammad

Muhammad united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad’s death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.^[12][13] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad’s companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or «Wars of Apostasy».^[m]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt,^[202] large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate.

According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but «the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject.»^[203] Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.^[204]

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.^[204][n] For example, according to Lewis, Islam «from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents».^{[which?][204]} Muhammad’s message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.^{[205][page needed]}
Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.^[206] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad’s power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.^[207][208]

Appearance

In Muhammad al-Bukhari’s book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 61, Hadith 57^[209] & Hadith 60,^[210] Muhammad is depicted by two of his companions thus:

God’s Messenger was neither very tall nor short, neither absolutely white nor deep brown. His hair was neither curly nor lank. God sent him (as a Messenger) when he was forty years old. Afterwards he resided in Mecca for ten years and in Medina for ten more years. When God took him unto Him, there was scarcely twenty white hairs in his head and beard.

— Anas

The Prophet was of moderate height having broad shoulders (long) hair reaching his ear-lobes. Once I saw him in a red cloak and I had never seen anyone more handsome than him.

— Al-Bara

The description given in Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi’s book Shama’il al-Mustafa, attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hind ibn Abi Hala is as follows:^{[211][212][213]}

Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a declivity. He had the «seal of prophecy» between his shoulder blades … He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was azhar [bright, luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long, arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth, and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of silver. Muhammad was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered.

The «seal of prophecy» between Muhammad’s shoulders is generally described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon’s egg.^[212] Another description of Muhammad was provided by Umm Ma’bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:^[214][215]

I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure. He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely arched and joined together.
When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory rose up and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men and the most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a string of cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length, and no eye challenged him because of brevity. In company he is like a branch between two other branches, but he is the most flourishing of the three in appearance, and the loveliest in power. He has friends surrounding him, who listen to his words. If he commands, they obey implicitly, with eagerness and haste, without frown or complaint.

Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (Turkish: hilye), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the Ottoman Empire.^[214]

Household

Muhammad’s life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Yathrib/Taybah (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine^[o][216]). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Yathrib.

At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old.^[217] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.^[218] Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.^[219][220] After Khadijah’s death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.^[150] Muhammad’s marriages after the death of Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.^[221]

According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad,^{[150][222][223]} with the marriage not being consummated until she reached the age of nine or ten years old.^[p] She was therefore a virgin at marriage.^[222] Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha’s age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.^[q]

After migration to Yathrib, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women.

Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.^{[235][236][237]}

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.^[238] Some Shi’a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad’s only daughter.^[239] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.^[238]

Nine of Muhammad’s wives survived him.^[216] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad’s favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.^[150]

Muhammad’s descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning ‘noble’ and sayed or sayyid meaning ‘lord’ or ‘sir’. As Muhammad’s only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi’a, though the Shi’a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.^[240]

Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse.^[241] According to a BBC summary, «the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem».^[242]

Legacy

Islamic tradition

Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad’s prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in Shahadah: «I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God.» The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.^[243]

In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.^[244][245] Qur’an 10:37 states that «…it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book—wherein there is no doubt—from The Lord of the Worlds.» Similarly, 46:12 states «…And before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms (it)…», while Quran 2:136 commands the believers of Islam to «Say: we believe in God and that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered.»

Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several miracles or supernatural events.^[246] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.^[247][248] Western historian of Islam Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is identified with the Quran itself.^[247]

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was attacked by the people of Ta’if and was badly injured. The tradition also describes an angel appearing to him and offering retribution against the assailants. It is said that Muhammad rejected the offer and prayed for the guidance of the people of Ta’if.^[249]

The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, «may peace be upon you» (Arabic: as-salamu ‘alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.^[251]

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad’s life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda («Poem of the Mantle») by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.^[252] The Quran refers to Muhammad as «a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds»^[253][11] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth.^[r][11] Muhammad’s birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.^[254] When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam (may God honor him and grant him peace) or the English phrase peace be upon him.^[255] In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used (ﷺ).

Sufism

The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.^[256]
Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.^[257]

Depictions

In line with the hadith’s prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word.^[258][259] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures.^[258][260] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).^[261] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past,^[262] Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.^[258] They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.^[260][263]

The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad.^[263][264] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia’s Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi’a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam’s key events.^[265] Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite’s conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a «broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation» in «mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork» besides books.^[266] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century.^[265] The Safavaids, who made Shi’i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad’s face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.^[267] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.^{[265][268][269]} Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.^[262] Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi’raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.^[270] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi’raj books, with Muhammad’s face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels. Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially «printed manuscripts».^[270] Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.^[262][263]

European appreciation

After the Reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed in a similar way.^[11][271] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.^[11][272] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because «he did not deviate from the natural religion».^[11] Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his Vie de Mahomed which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.^[11] He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.^[273] Voltaire had a somewhat mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in a published essay in 1748 he calls him «a sublime and hearty charlatan», but in his historical survey Essai sur les mœurs, he presents him as legislator and a conqueror and calls him an «enthusiast.»^[273] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his Social Contract (1762), «brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers.»^[273] Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad, in which he presents the lives of these three «great men», «the greatest legislators of the universe», and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers «the most sublime truths of cult and morals»; it defines the unity of God with an «admirable concision.» Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the «legislator of Arabia» was «a great man.»^[273] Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad and Islam,^[274] and described him as a model lawmaker and a great man.^[275][276] Thomas Carlyle in his book On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History (1841) describes «Mahomet» as «A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot but be in earnest».^[277] Carlyle’s interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad’s status as a great man in history.^[278]

Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: «Goethe’s ‘extraordinary’ poet-prophet, Herder’s nation builder (…) Schlegel’s admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble ‘a Koran of poetry’).»^[279] After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that «I must admit that you, great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran… will not easily escape my memory», John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an ethnoreligious minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, «writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors.»^[280]

Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad «was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith»^[281] and Muhammad’s readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.^[282] Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.^[283] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam’s development.^[284][285] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.^[11]

Other religions

Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or «Manifestations of God». He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the Adamic cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current cycle.^[286][287]

Druze tradition honors several «mentors» and «prophets»,^[288] and Muhammad is considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.^[289][290]

Criticism

Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his perceived appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures and proclamation of himself as the «Seal of the Prophets».^[291][292]

During the Middle Ages, various Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers criticized Muhammad’s morality, and labelled him a false prophet or even the Antichrist, and he was frequently portrayed in Christendom as being either a heretic or as being possessed by demons.^{[293][294][295][296]}

Modern religious and secular criticism of Islam has concerned Muhammad’s sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his marriages, his ownership of slaves, his treatment of his enemies, his handling of doctrinal matters and his psychological condition.^{[293][297][298][299]}

See also

Notes

Citations

References

Encyclopaedia of Islam

Further reading

External links

• Muhammad at Curlie

The Holy Prophet Muhammad
مُحَمَّد
«Muhammad, the Messenger of God.» inscribed on the gates of the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina
Personal
Born	c. 570 CE (53 BH)[1] Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Died	8 June 632 (11 AH) (aged 61–62) Taybah, Hejaz, Arabia
Resting place	Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina, Arabia 24°28′03″N 39°36′41″E / 24.46750°N 39.61139°E
Spouse	See Muhammad’s wives
Children	See Muhammad’s children
Parent(s)	Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father) Amina bint Wahb (mother)
Known for	Founding Islam
Other names	Rasūl Allāh (Messenger of God) (see Names and titles of Muhammad)
Relatives	Family tree of Muhammad, Ahl al-Bayt  («Family of the House»)
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)	Muḥammad
Patronymic (Nasab)	Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭālib ibn Hāshim ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy ibn Kilāb
Teknonymic (Kunya)	ʾAbu al-Qāsim
Epithet (Laqab)	Ḵātam an-Nabiyyīn (Seal of the Prophets)

Muhammad^[a] (Arabic: مُحَمَّد; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)^[b] was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam.^[c] According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.^[2][3][4] He is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets within Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.

Muhammad was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.^[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad’s birth. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.^[5] He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.^[6] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave^[1] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,^[7] Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly,^[8] proclaiming that «God is One», that complete «submission» (islām) to God is the right way of life (dīn),^[9] and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.^[10][3][11]

Muhammad’s followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.^[12][13]

The revelations (each known as Ayah — literally, «Sign [of God]») that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim «Word of God» on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad’s teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law (see Sharia).

Names and appellations

The name Muhammad (^[14]) means «praiseworthy» in Arabic. It appears four times in the Quran.^[15] The Quran also addresses Muhammad in the second person by various appellations; prophet, messenger, servant of God (‘abd), announcer (bashir),^[16] witness (shahid),^[17] bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),^[18] reminder (mudhakkir),^[19] one who calls [unto God] (dā’ī),^[20] light personified (noor),^[21] and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir).^[22]

Sources of biographical information

Quran

The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.^[23][24][25] The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad’s chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context.^[26][27]

Early biographies

Important sources regarding Muhammad’s life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).^[28] These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about Muhammad’s life.^[29]

The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq’s Life of God’s Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari.^[30][31] However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq’s biography that «would distress certain people».^[32] Another early history source is the history of Muhammad’s campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 AH), and the work of Waqidi’s secretary Ibn Sa’d al-Baghdadi (death 230 AH).^[28]

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable.^[30] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been only subject to «tendential shaping».^[33]

Hadith

Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni.^[34][35]

Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources.^[34] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.^[36] Muslim scholars on the other hand typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.^[37]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Yathrib. Yathrib was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.^[38] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal affiliation, whether based on kinship or alliances, was an important source of social cohesion.^[39] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.^[40]

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.^[d] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who «professed a rigid monotheism»^[41] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.^[42][43] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham,^[e] although no known evidence exists for a historical Abraham or Ishmael, and the links are based solely on tradition instead of historical records.^[44]

The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.^[45] Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.^[46] Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area.^[46] In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.^[46]

During the early years of Muhammad’s life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.^[47] They formed the cult association of hums, which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.^[48] To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.^[48] Thus, although the association of hums was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.^[48]

Life

Childhood and early life

Timeline of Muhammad’s life
Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad
Date	Age	Event
c. 570	–	Death of his father, Abdullah
c. 570	0	Possible date of birth: 12 or 17 Rabi al Awal: in Mecca, Arabia
c. 577	6	Death of his mother, Amina
c. 583	12–13	His grandfather transfers him to Syria
c. 595	24–25	Meets and marries Khadijah
c. 599	28–29	Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima Zahra
610	40	Qur’anic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabal an-Nour, the «Mountain of Light» near Mecca. At age 40, Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) was said to appear to Muhammad on the mountain and call him «the Prophet of Allah»
Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca
c. 613	43	Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans
c. 614	43–44	Heavy persecution of Muslims begins
c. 615	44–45	Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia
c. 616	45–46	Banu Hashim clan boycott begins
619	49	Banu Hashim clan boycott ends
The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die
c. 620	49–50	Isra and Mi’raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God)
622	51–52	Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib)
624	53–54	Battle of Badr
625	54–55	Battle of Uhud
627	56–57	Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina)
628	57–58	The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
630	59–60	Conquest of Mecca
632	61–62	Farewell pilgrimage, event of Ghadir Khumm, and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia
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Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim^[49] was born in Mecca^[50] about the year 570^[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi’ al-awwal.^[51] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca’s prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad’s early lifetime.^[11][f] Tradition places the year of Muhammad’s birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen’s king, who supplemented his army with elephants.^[52][53][54]

Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.^[6]

Muhammad’s father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.^[56] According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition’s historicity.^[57] Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan.^[57][58] For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.^[6] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, «Muhammad’s guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time.»^[59]

In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade.^[59] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans’ caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad’s career as a prophet of God.^[60]

Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.^[59] It is known that he became a merchant and «was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.»^[61] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname «al-Amin» (Arabic: الامين), meaning «faithful, trustworthy» and «al-Sadiq» meaning «truthful»^[62] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.^[11][63] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.^[61]

Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.^[64][65]

Beginnings of the Quran

Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as «sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell». Aisha reported, «I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)».^[74] According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.^[11] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.^[75] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70,^[76] Quran 6:19).^[77] Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad’s contemporaries of similar calamities.^[78] Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God’s revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God. Muhammad’s mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.^[78]

The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God’s final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise, and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not committing female infanticide.^[11]

Opposition

According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad’s wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.^[79] She was followed by Muhammad’s ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.^[79] Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.^[8][80] Most Meccans ignored and mocked him, though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.^[81]

According to Ibn Saad, opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers.^[82] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public preaching.^[83] As his followers increased, Muhammad became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Kaaba.^[81] Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants, as well as an advantageous marriage. He refused both of these offers.^[81]

Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad and his followers.^[11] Sumayyah bint Khayyat, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.^[84][85]

In 615, some of Muhammad’s followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.^[11] Ibn Sa’ad mentions two separate migrations. According to him, most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while a second group rejoined them in Yathrib. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, however, only talk about one migration to Ethiopia. These accounts agree that Meccan persecution played a major role in Muhammad’s decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia. According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al-Tabari, the majority of Muslims returned to their native town as Islam gained strength and as high ranking Meccans, such as Umar and Hamzah, converted.^[86]

However, there is a completely different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this account—initially mentioned by Al-Waqidi then rehashed by Ibn Sa’ad and Tabari, but not by Ibn Hisham and not by Ibn Ishaq.^[11] Muhammad, desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammad retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself. Instead, a ridicule of these gods was offered.^[87][h][i] This episode, known as «The Story of the Cranes,» is also known as «Satanic Verses». According to the story, this led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Abyssinia Muslims began to return home. When they arrived Gabriel had informed Muhammad that the two verses were not part of the revelation, but had been inserted by Satan. Notable scholars at the time argued against the historic authenticity of these verses and the story itself on various grounds.^[88][11][j] Al-Waqidi was severely criticized by Islamic scholars such as Malik ibn Anas, al-Shafi’i, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-Nasa’i, al-Bukhari, Abu Dawood, Al-Nawawi and others as a liar and forger.^{[89][90][91][92]} Later, the incident received some acceptance among certain groups, though strong objections to it continued onwards past the tenth century. The objections continued until rejection of these verses and the story itself eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.^[93]

In 616 (or 617), the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.^[94][95] During this time, Muhammad was able to preach only during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs were suspended.

Isra and Mi’raj

Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi’raj, a miraculous night-long journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel. At the journey’s beginning, the Isra, he is said to have traveled from Mecca on a winged steed to «the farthest mosque.» Later, during the Mi’raj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.^{[citation needed]} Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad, presents the event as a spiritual experience; later historians, such as Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, present it as a physical journey.^{[citation needed]}

Some western scholars^[who?] hold that the Isra and Mi’raj journey traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); later traditions indicate Muhammad’s journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.^{[97][page needed]}

Last years before Hijra

Muhammad’s wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the «Year of Sorrow». With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterward, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan’s protection over Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Ta’if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.^[11][95] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut’im ibn Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.^[11][95]

Many people visited Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).^[11] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.^[11] They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Yathrib; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the «Second Pledge of al-‘Aqaba«, or, in Orientalists’ view, the «Pledge of War«.^[99] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.^[100]

Hijra

The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Yathrib,^[101] 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.^[102]

Migration to Medina

Timeline of Muhammad in Medina
624	53–54	Invasion of Sawiq
Al Kudr Invasion
Raid on Dhu Amarr, Muhammad raids Ghatafan tribes
625	54–55	Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims
Invasion of Hamra al-Asad, successfully terrifies the enemy to cause a retreat
Assassination of Khaled b. Sufyan
Tragedy of al Raji and Bir Maona
Banu Nadir expelled after Invasion
626	55–56	Expedition of Badr al-Maw’id, Dhat al-Riqa and Dumat al-Jandal
627	56–57	Battle of the Trench
Invasion of Banu Qurayza, successful siege
628	57–58	Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, gains access to Kaaba
Conquest of the Khaybar oasis
629	58–59	First hajj pilgrimage
Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mu’tah
630	59–60	Bloodless conquest of Mecca
Battle of Hunayn
Siege of Ta’if
Attack on Byzantine Empire successful: Expedition of Tabuk
631	60–61	Rules most of the Arabian peninsula
632	61–62	Farewell hajj pilgrimage
Death, on June 8 in Medina
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A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Yathrib, invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as a neutral outsider.^[103][104] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620.^[103] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu’ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.^[103] The delegation from Yathrib pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.^[11]

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Yathrib, until nearly all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.^[105] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).^[11]

Establishment of a new polity

Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Yathrib was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina, «establishing a kind of alliance or federation» among the eight Yathrib tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca; this specified rights and duties of all citizens, and the relationship of the different communities in Yathrib (including the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the Jews and other «Peoples of the Book»).^[103][104] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.^[11]

The first group of converts to Islam in Yathrib were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.^[106] This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Yathrib, with some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa’d ibn Mu’adh (a prominent Yathrib leader) to Islam.^[107] People of Yathrib who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).^[11] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother.^[108]

Beginning of armed conflict

Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Yathrib.^[109] War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans.^[110] According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Yathrib, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.^[111]

Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.^[112] In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.^[113] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.^[114] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.^[115] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed.^{[116][117][118]} Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith^[11] and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.^[119]

The victory strengthened Muhammad’s position in Yathrib and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.^[120] As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu ‘Afak of the ‘Amr b. ‘Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.^[121] They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of the killings.^[121] This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication.^[122] Most members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.^[123]

Muhammad expelled from Yathrib the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,^[11] but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad’s death.^[124] According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Yathrib.^[125] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz.^[11]

Conflict with Mecca

The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.^[126] In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Yathrib while Muhammad led expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.^[127] Abu Sufyan gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Yathrib.^[128]

A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army’s presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Yathrib and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625.^[129][130] Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza, Muhammad’s uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.^[131][132] The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Yathrib that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.^[133]

Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Yathrib. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Yathrib; using propaganda about Muhammad’s weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery.^[134] Muhammad’s new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Yathrib were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up.^[134] Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Yathrib, and reacted in a severe manner.^[135] One example is the assassination of Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans’ grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.^[136][137] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Yathrib^[138] forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad’s attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies.^[139]

Battle of the Trench

With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Yathrib lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Yathrib began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.^[140] Abu Sufyan’s troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.^[k] The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.^[83]
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Yathrib, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad’s scouts.^[141] After the coalition’s retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.^[142][143] Walid N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq’s narrative.^[144] Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq’s Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of «odd tales» by the later Ibn Hajar.^[145] Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.^[146][147] Watt finds Arafat’s arguments «not entirely convincing», while Meir J. Kister has contradicted^{[clarification needed]} the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.^[148]

In the siege of Yathrib, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.^[149] Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.^[11] While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad’s wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha’s innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).^[150] Following the battle, Muhammad renamed Yathrib to Taybah.^[151][152]

Truce of Hudaybiyyah

Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,^[154] the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.^[155] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca.^[156] According to Watt, although Muhammad’s decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion.^[156]

Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the «Pledge of Acceptance» or the «Pledge under the Tree». News of Uthman’s safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.^[156][158] The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad’s pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Taybah without permission from their protector.^[156]

Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura «Al-Fath» (The Victory) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one.^[159] It was later that Muhammad’s followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Taybah to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals.^[11]

After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.^[128][160] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).^{[11][161][162]} He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.^[161][162] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu’tah.^[163]

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years.^[164][165] The tribe of Banu Khuza’a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the Meccans.^[164][165] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza’a, killing a few of them.^[164][165] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.^[164] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay blood money for the slain among the Khuza’ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.^[166]

The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.^[166] Soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad.

Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.^[167] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of Mecca.^[168] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were «guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace».^[169] Some of these were later pardoned.^[170] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.^[171] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased.^[172] The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.^[83][173]

Conquest of Arabia

Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad’s. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta’if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.^[174] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.^[11]

In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu’tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them. Although Muhammad did not engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.^[11][175]

He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to accept the city’s surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the statue of their goddess Al-Lat.^{[112][176][177]}

A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war.^[11] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad required a military and political agreement according to which they «acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy.»^[178]

Farewell pilgrimage

In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Yathrib, Muhammad completed his first true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as Hajj.^[11] On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety and good action.^[179] He abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male followers to «be good to women, for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God’s trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words …» He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.^[180][181] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: «Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you».^[182][11] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad’s successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Taybah.^[l]

Death and tomb

A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Taybah, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.^[183] With his head resting on Aisha’s lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words:

O Allah, to Ar-Rafiq Al-A’la (exalted friend, highest Friend or the uppermost, highest Friend in heaven).^{[184][185][186]}

— Muhammad

According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad’s death may be presumed to have been caused by Medinan fever exacerbated by physical and mental fatigue.^[187] Academics Reşit Haylamaz and Fatih Harpci say that Ar-Rafiq Al-A’la is referring to God.^[188]

Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha’s house.^{[11][189][190]} During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad’s tomb.^[191] The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.^[192] Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.^{[190][193][194]}

When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad’s tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.^[195] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud’s followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,^[195] and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.^[196] Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.^{[197][198][199]} In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.^[196] Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the tomb.^[200][201]

After Muhammad

Muhammad united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad’s death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.^[12][13] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad’s companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or «Wars of Apostasy».^[m]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt,^[202] large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate.

According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but «the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject.»^[203] Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.^[204]

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.^[204][n] For example, according to Lewis, Islam «from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents».^{[which?][204]} Muhammad’s message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.^{[205][page needed]}
Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.^[206] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad’s power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.^[207][208]

Appearance

In Muhammad al-Bukhari’s book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 61, Hadith 57^[209] & Hadith 60,^[210] Muhammad is depicted by two of his companions thus:

God’s Messenger was neither very tall nor short, neither absolutely white nor deep brown. His hair was neither curly nor lank. God sent him (as a Messenger) when he was forty years old. Afterwards he resided in Mecca for ten years and in Medina for ten more years. When God took him unto Him, there was scarcely twenty white hairs in his head and beard.

— Anas

The Prophet was of moderate height having broad shoulders (long) hair reaching his ear-lobes. Once I saw him in a red cloak and I had never seen anyone more handsome than him.

— Al-Bara

The description given in Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi’s book Shama’il al-Mustafa, attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hind ibn Abi Hala is as follows:^{[211][212][213]}

Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a declivity. He had the «seal of prophecy» between his shoulder blades … He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was azhar [bright, luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long, arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth, and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of silver. Muhammad was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered.

The «seal of prophecy» between Muhammad’s shoulders is generally described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon’s egg.^[212] Another description of Muhammad was provided by Umm Ma’bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:^[214][215]

I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure. He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely arched and joined together.
When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory rose up and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men and the most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a string of cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length, and no eye challenged him because of brevity. In company he is like a branch between two other branches, but he is the most flourishing of the three in appearance, and the loveliest in power. He has friends surrounding him, who listen to his words. If he commands, they obey implicitly, with eagerness and haste, without frown or complaint.

Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (Turkish: hilye), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the Ottoman Empire.^[214]

Household

Muhammad’s life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Yathrib/Taybah (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine^[o][216]). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Yathrib.

At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old.^[217] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.^[218] Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.^[219][220] After Khadijah’s death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.^[150] Muhammad’s marriages after the death of Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.^[221]

According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad,^{[150][222][223]} with the marriage not being consummated until she reached the age of nine or ten years old.^[p] She was therefore a virgin at marriage.^[222] Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha’s age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.^[q]

After migration to Yathrib, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women.

Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.^{[235][236][237]}

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.^[238] Some Shi’a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad’s only daughter.^[239] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.^[238]

Nine of Muhammad’s wives survived him.^[216] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad’s favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.^[150]

Muhammad’s descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning ‘noble’ and sayed or sayyid meaning ‘lord’ or ‘sir’. As Muhammad’s only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi’a, though the Shi’a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.^[240]

Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse.^[241] According to a BBC summary, «the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem».^[242]

Legacy

Islamic tradition

Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad’s prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in Shahadah: «I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God.» The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.^[243]

In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.^[244][245] Qur’an 10:37 states that «…it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book—wherein there is no doubt—from The Lord of the Worlds.» Similarly, 46:12 states «…And before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms (it)…», while Quran 2:136 commands the believers of Islam to «Say: we believe in God and that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered.»

Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several miracles or supernatural events.^[246] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.^[247][248] Western historian of Islam Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is identified with the Quran itself.^[247]

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was attacked by the people of Ta’if and was badly injured. The tradition also describes an angel appearing to him and offering retribution against the assailants. It is said that Muhammad rejected the offer and prayed for the guidance of the people of Ta’if.^[249]

The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, «may peace be upon you» (Arabic: as-salamu ‘alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.^[251]

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad’s life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda («Poem of the Mantle») by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.^[252] The Quran refers to Muhammad as «a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds»^[253][11] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth.^[r][11] Muhammad’s birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.^[254] When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam (may God honor him and grant him peace) or the English phrase peace be upon him.^[255] In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used (ﷺ).

Sufism

The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.^[256]
Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.^[257]

Depictions

In line with the hadith’s prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word.^[258][259] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures.^[258][260] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).^[261] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past,^[262] Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.^[258] They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.^[260][263]

The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad.^[263][264] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia’s Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi’a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam’s key events.^[265] Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite’s conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a «broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation» in «mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork» besides books.^[266] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century.^[265] The Safavaids, who made Shi’i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad’s face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.^[267] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.^{[265][268][269]} Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.^[262] Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi’raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.^[270] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi’raj books, with Muhammad’s face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels. Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially «printed manuscripts».^[270] Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.^[262][263]

European appreciation

After the Reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed in a similar way.^[11][271] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.^[11][272] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because «he did not deviate from the natural religion».^[11] Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his Vie de Mahomed which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.^[11] He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.^[273] Voltaire had a somewhat mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in a published essay in 1748 he calls him «a sublime and hearty charlatan», but in his historical survey Essai sur les mœurs, he presents him as legislator and a conqueror and calls him an «enthusiast.»^[273] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his Social Contract (1762), «brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers.»^[273] Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad, in which he presents the lives of these three «great men», «the greatest legislators of the universe», and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers «the most sublime truths of cult and morals»; it defines the unity of God with an «admirable concision.» Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the «legislator of Arabia» was «a great man.»^[273] Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad and Islam,^[274] and described him as a model lawmaker and a great man.^[275][276] Thomas Carlyle in his book On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History (1841) describes «Mahomet» as «A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot but be in earnest».^[277] Carlyle’s interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad’s status as a great man in history.^[278]

Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: «Goethe’s ‘extraordinary’ poet-prophet, Herder’s nation builder (…) Schlegel’s admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble ‘a Koran of poetry’).»^[279] After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that «I must admit that you, great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran… will not easily escape my memory», John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an ethnoreligious minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, «writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors.»^[280]

Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad «was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith»^[281] and Muhammad’s readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.^[282] Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.^[283] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam’s development.^[284][285] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.^[11]

Other religions

Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or «Manifestations of God». He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the Adamic cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current cycle.^[286][287]

Druze tradition honors several «mentors» and «prophets»,^[288] and Muhammad is considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.^[289][290]

Criticism

Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his perceived appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures and proclamation of himself as the «Seal of the Prophets».^[291][292]

During the Middle Ages, various Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers criticized Muhammad’s morality, and labelled him a false prophet or even the Antichrist, and he was frequently portrayed in Christendom as being either a heretic or as being possessed by demons.^{[293][294][295][296]}

Modern religious and secular criticism of Islam has concerned Muhammad’s sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his marriages, his ownership of slaves, his treatment of his enemies, his handling of doctrinal matters and his psychological condition.^{[293][297][298][299]}

See also

Notes

Citations

References

Encyclopaedia of Islam

Further reading

External links

• Muhammad at Curlie

Мухаммед (محمد)
Толкование имени:	Хвалимый, прославляемый
Имя на других языках:	араб. محمد‎‎ англ. Muhammad нем. Mohammed фр. Mahomet
Имя при рождении:	Мухаммад ибн Абдуллах ибн Абдул-Мутталиб
Пол:	мужской
Рождение:	22 апреля 571 (20), Мекка, Саудовская Аравия
Смерть:	8 июня 632 (61 год), Медина, Саудовская Аравия
Нацио- нальность:	араб-аднанит
Сражения:	более 30 сражений и военных походов
Чудеса и знамения:	Разделение Луны на две части, получение воды из пальцев.
Отец:	Абдуллах
Мать:	Амина бинт Вахб
Супруги:	Хадиджа бинт Хувайлид Сауда бинт Зама Аиша бинт Абу Бакр Хафса бинт Умар Зайнаб бинт Хумайза Умм Салама Зайнаб бинт Джахш Джувайрия бинт Харис Райхана бинт Зейд Сафия бинт Хуяй Рамля бинт Абу Суфьян Мария аль-Кибтия Маймуна бинт Харис
Дети:	Касим, Тахир, Таййиб, Зайнаб, Рукаййа, Умм Кульсум, Фатима
Титул:	Пророк, глава исламской уммы
Период правления:	622—630 (Медина) 630—632 (Хиджаз)
Наследник:	нет
Преемник:	Абу Бакр ас-Сиддик
Связанные события:	Переселение в Ат-Таиф, мирадж, хиджра
Связанные персоналии:	Праведные халифы, сподвижники, ангел Джабраил, Ираклий I
Дополнительная информация:	основатель ислама
Мухаммед на Викискладе

Ислам · Пророки
Семья
Ахль аль-Байт • Жёны Алиды • Шерифы • Сеиды
Биография
Коран • Сунна • Сира Начало пророческой миссии Переселение в Ат-Таиф Исра и Мирадж • Хиджра
прочее
Мавлид • Салават • Газават Сахаба • Мечеть Пророка Джахилия • Зульфикар

Муха́ммед (араб. محمد‎‎ [mʊħɑmmæd], ^{произношение (инф.)}, в русском языке также употребляется передача Магоме́т (Магоме́д)^[1] (галлицизм, распространённый в русской литературе), Моха́ммед 20 (22) апреля 571 года (по некоторым источникам 570), 12 числа месяца рабиуль-авваль, в понедельник, незадолго до восхода солнца, Мекка — 8 июня 632, Медина) — арабский проповедник единобожия и пророк ислама, центральная (после единого Бога) фигура этой религии; согласно исламскому учению Мухаммеду Бог ниспослал своё священное писание — Коран. Также Мухаммед был политическим деятелем, основателем и главой мусульманской общины (уммы), которая в процессе его непосредственного правления составила сильное и достаточно крупное государство на Аравийском полуострове.

Имя

В исламе имени уделяется большое сакральное значение. Имя «Мухаммед» значит «Восхваляемый», «Достойный хвалы». В Коране он называется по имени всего четыре раза, но называется также пророком (ан-Наби), вестником (Расул), слугой Бога (Абд), вестником (Башир), предупредителем (Надхир), напоминателем (Мудхаккир), свидетелем (Шахид), воззвавшим к Богу (Да’и) и др. Согласно мусульманской традиции, после произношения или написания имени пророка Мухаммеда, всегда говорится «Солля Ллаху алейхи ва саллям» (араб. صلى الله عليه وسلم‎‎) — то есть «Благословит его Аллах и приветствует».

Полное имя Мухаммеда включает имена всех его известных предков по прямой мужской линии начиная от Адама, а также содержит кунью по имени его сына Касима (это имя значит «Делящий»; при жизни Мухаммеда никто не мог называть своего сына Касим, так как эта кунья была закреплена за Мухаммедом). Полностью имя пророка Мухаммеда выглядит так: Абу аль-Касим Мухаммад ибн ‘Абд Аллах ибн Абд аль-Мутталиб (имя Абд аль-Мутталиба — Шайба) ибн Хашим (имя Хашима — Амр) ибн Абд Манаф (имя Абд Манафа — аль-Мугира) ибн Кусаййа ибн Килаб ибн Мурра ибн Кааб ибн Луаййа ибн Галиб ибн Фихр ибн Малик ибн Ан-Надр ибн Кинана ибн Хузайма ибн Мудрик (имя Мудрики — Амир) ибн Ильяс ибн Мудар ибн Низар ибн Мадд ибн Аднан ибн Адад (произносят также — Удад) ибн Мукаввим ибн Нахур ибн Тайрах ибн Иаруб ибн Йашджуб ибн Набит ибн Исмаил ибн Ибрахим (Халиль ар-Рахман) ибн Тарих (это Азар) ибн Нахур ибн Саруг ибн Шалих ибн Ирфхашад ибн Сам ибн Нух ибн Ламк ибн Матту Шалах ибн Ахнух (это, как утверждают, пророк Идрис) ибн Иард ибн Махлил ибн Кайнан ибн Ианиш ибн Шит ибн Адам.^[2]

Внешний вид

Будучи потомком пророка Исмаила (арабом-аднанитом) пророк Мухаммед отличался от других арабов (кахтанитов) более светлым цветом кожи. По свидетельству современников пророк Мухаммед был широкоплеч, рост у него был средний, кисти рук и ступни крупные. Борода у пророка Мухаммеда была густая, рот и глаза большие. Между лопатками находилась печать пророчества в виде рельефного треугольника.^[3] У него были длинные ресницы, изогнутые брови, соединенные у лба и длинная шея.^[4]

Великий исламский историк и богослов Абу Джафар Мухаммад ат-Табари в своей книге «Всеобщая история» привёл следующее описание внешности пророка.

«Он был среднего роста: ни высоким, ни низким. Лицо у него было розовато-белое, глаза — темные, волосы — густые, блестящие, очень красивые. Лицо обрамляла борода. Длинные волосы ниспадали на плечи. Цветом они были черные… Походка у него была столь живой, что казалось, с каждым шагом он отрывается от земли, и вместе с тем движения его были столь легки, словно он не касался её. Однако в походке его не было гордости, присущей сильным мира сего. В лице его было столько доброты, что нельзя было отвести глаз. Голодным было достаточно взглянуть на него, как они тотчас забывали о пище. Страдальцы забывали при нём о своих бедах, очарованные мягкостью его черт и его речи. Все видевшие его были единодушны в том, что никогда, ни раньше, ни позже, не встречали человека, беседа с которым была бы столь приятна. Нос у него был прямой, зубы редкие. Временами волосы свободно ниспадали у него с головы, иногда он завязывал их в два или в четыре пучка. К 62 годам у него практически не было седых волос…»^[5]

Пророк Мухаммед любил носить одежду белого цвета, в основном это были длинные рубашки (аль-камис) и полосатые йеменские плащи (аль-хибара), а также чалма и изар, который он оборачивал вокруг бедер и доходивший до середины голени. На руке у него было серебряное кольцо с надписью «Мухаммед — Посланник Аллаха». Он был чистоплотен, часто наносил на своё тело благовония и чистил зубы мисваком^[6] Голос пророка Мухаммеда был немного хриплым, говорил он красноречиво, коротко и ясно, иногда повторяя какую-нибудь фразу трижды для того, чтобы люди смогли точно запомнить его слова. Он часто улыбался, а иногда смеялся так, что были видны его коренные зубы.

Место Мухаммеда среди пророков ислама

Ислам, помимо Мухаммеда, признаёт также и других пророков (есть версии о том, что их было 124 тысячи, есть версии, что их было 224 тысячи^[7]), но при этом оговаривает, что Мухаммед является не просто одним из пророков, а является последним в цепи всех посланников и пророков. Кроме того, он послан не к отдельному городу, селу, народу, как это было со всеми остальными посланниками (в том числе и Исой — Иисусом), а ко всем людям на земле. Его шариат (то есть комплекс морально-нравственных и религиозно-юридических правил и принципов), согласно учению ислама, будет действителен до Судного Дня. Все остальные шариаты, с которыми приходили пророки, утратили свою силу (все они носили временный характер). Таким образом, мусульмане, принимая такие Священные Писания, как Тора и Евангелие, не признают их законы действующими, а кроме того указывают на то, что они впоследствии были искажены людьми.

Мухаммед занимает самое высокое положение среди пророков (поэтому один из его эпитетов — Господин Пророков). Согласно исламу, вера в пророческую миссию Мухаммеда является обязательной для всех людей, в том числе и для христиан и иудеев, которые должны были последовать его призыву и принять последний шариат.

Рамадан аль-Буты так пишет о месте Мухаммеда и его шариата в исламе: «Нет различий в монотеистических религиях [имеются ввиду монотеистические религии в неискаженном виде], так как все они — звенья единой Божественной цепи, в которой миссия Мухаммеда является кульминацией всего религиозного развития человечества. Однако же есть различия в законодательствах (шариатах), с которыми направлялись пророки»^[8]

Мухаммед принадлежал к племени курайш. Притесняемый мекканцами-язычниками, в 622 году он переселился из Мекки в Ясриб, который после этого стал называться Мединой (эта дата — хиджра (переезд) — является началом мусульманского календаря), а затем вместе со своими приверженцами завоевал Мекку. К моменту смерти Мухаммеда в 632 году в ислам был обращён уже весь Аравийский полуостров, а вскоре после смерти пророка его преемники («наместники», халифы) завоевали обширные территории азиатских и африканских владений Византийской империи, частично Европу, распространяя ислам, арабскую культуру и язык, а впоследствии также и накопленные (в том числе античной цивилизацией) научные знания, которые оказали непосредственное влияние на развитие науки в целом; данное культурно-языковое и религиозное пространство сохраняется, за исключением Европы, до настоящего времени. Мухаммед называется также Печатью Пророков, Господином Пророков и Пророком Судного часа. В иман мусульманина входит убеждение о том, что Мухаммед является посланником Бога наряду с другими пророками (это зафиксировано в исламском символе веры — Шахаде) и является последним пророком.

Религиозное учение

Основная статья: Ислам

Согласно учению ислама, Мухаммед является последним пророком и посланником Аллаха. Ислам, то есть покорность Единому Богу, была присуща всем праведникам, в том числе последовавшим велению Бога, приняв учение Исы, Мусы и других известных библейских пророков. Однако учения иудаизма и христианства, по исламу, были искажены людьми, а потом потеряли свою актуальность после начала ниспослания Корана. При этом, искажение Писаний было в границах знания Аллаха. Коран является словом Аллаха, последним Священным Писанием, Писанием которое не подвергнется изменениям. Так как, по воле Аллаха, Последнее Писание содержит арабскую речь, этот язык является особенным для мусульман. Только Коран на арабском языке является Писанием, перевод на любой язык мира (часто указывается, что это «перевод смыслов») таковым не является^[9]. Коран ниспосылался частями. Основываясь на аятах Корана (25:32, 17:106), это связывается с тем, что Аллах желал укоренить веру в сердце Мухаммеда, а также ниспосылал откровения согласно событиям и вопросам спрашивающих, что производило большее впечатление, чем если бы они ниспослались целиком. Откровение могло успокаивать Мухаммеда, вселять в него покой и стойкость. Некоторые откровения отменяли предыдущие. Принято считать, что в откровениях, пришедших Мухаммеду до переселения мусульман в Медину, содержится меньше правовых установлений. В Коране часто содержатся повеления Мухаммеду. Слово «куль» (скажи) содержится 332 раза^[10]

Пророчества о приходе Мухаммеда в Библии

Основная статья: Библия о Мухаммеде

Исламская религия, признавая в качестве Священного Писания также и Библию, часто указывает на то, что в том числе и в Библии говорится о пророке Мухаммеде, как о Божьем Посланнике. В Коране так говорится об этом: «Те, кому Мы даровали Писание, знают его, как знают своих сыновей. Однако часть их сознательно скрывает истину.» (2:146)

Кроме того, мусульмане говорят об искажении сегодняшнего варианта Библии, которые, согласно некоторым хадисам, затронули и ту часть, в которой говорится о Мухаммеде. Даже те христиане, которые согласны с тем, что Библия имеет искажения, отвергают позицию мусульман.

В качестве доказательства мусульмане приводят следующие библейские стихи:

Я воздвигну им Пророка из среды братьев их, такого как ты [эти слова адресованы Моисею] и вложу слова Мои в уста Его, и Он будет говорить им всё, что Я повелю Ему А кто не послушает слов Моих, которые Пророк тот будет говорить Моим именем, с того Я взыщу; Но пророка, который дерзнет говорить Моим именем то, чего Я не повелел ему говорить, и который будет говорить именем богов иных, такого пророка предайте смерти. И если скажешь в сердце твоем: «как мы узнаем слово, которое не Господь говорил?» Если пророк скажет именем Господа, но слово то не сбудется и не исполнится, то не Господь говорил сие слово, но говорил сие пророк по дерзости своей, — не бойся его. (Библия. Второзаконие гл. 18, ст. 18-22)

Мусульмане указывают на то, что про Ису (Иисуса) это не могло быть сказано, по причине того, что он не такой как Муса (Моисей), тогда как сказано «такого как ты». Известный мусульманский проповедник Ахмед Дидат указывал на главные отличия Исы (Иисуса). Это, признаваемое мусульманами, чудотворное рождение, он не женился и у него не было детей, в отличие от Моисея и Мухаммеда, он не был признан своим народом пророком, в отличие от Моисея^[11] и Мухаммеда, он не был царём, то есть не был тем, кто, грубо говоря, распоряжается жизнью своих людей. Также Ахмед Дидат указывает, что Иса(Иисус) не пришёл с каким-то новым законом, а пришёл лишь исполнить старый закон. По поводу слов «из братьев их», мусульмане напоминают об общем происхождении арабов и евреев. Мусульмане указывают и на другие стихи в Библии^[12]

Аравия и Мекка до начала проповеди Мухаммеда

Основными религиями в Аравии были язычество, иудаизм и разные еретические христианские верования. Местные арабские племена исповедовали многобожие, в основе которого была монотеистическая религия пророка Ибрахима (Ханифизм), от которой у них сохранился обряд хаджа и традиция почитания Каабы. У доисламских арабов широко почитались красноречие, гостеприимство и верность своему договору. Среди примитивных качеств доисламского общества можно выделить следующие: существовала кровная месть, была традиция закапывать заживо новорождённых девочек, или же закапывать новорождённых детей, если арабы боялись не прокормить их. Мекка, в которой жил Мухаммед, являлась одним из торговых и финансовых центров Аравии. Мекка располагалась среди бесплодных скал, земледелие в ней было невозможно. Земледелие было распространено только в оазисах, одним из которых был Ясриб (Медина). Мекка была ареной постоянной борьбы за власть между арабскими племенами. Особое место в политике играло племя Курайш, из которого происходил пророк Мухаммед.

Семья

Основная статья: Родословная пророка Мухаммеда

Пророк Мухаммед был из племени «Курайш», которое имело очень высокое положение в арабской среде. Он относился к клану Хашим (хашимиты). Клан получил такое название в честь прадеда Мухаммеда — Хашима. У Хашима при жизни было право на сбор скота для питания паломников и право на владение источником Замзам. Он был богатым человеком. Своё прозвище «Хашим» (его звали Амр) он получил из-за того, что разламывал хлеб на куски для паломников, приезжавших в хадж в Мекку («хашима» — разламывать хлеб для тюри). После его смерти право на кормление и поение паломников перешло к его брату, аль-Мутталибу, которого курайшиты называли аль-Файда — «сама щедрость». У Хашима был сын Абд аль-Мутталиб, которого назвали Шуайба. Он был очень почитаем в своём народе.

Отец Мухаммеда Абд Аллах умер незадолго до его рождения (за два месяца) или же через несколько месяцев после рождения Мухаммеда. Имя матери Мухаммеда — Амина бинт Вахб ибн Абд Манаф ибн Зухра ибн Килаб. Имя Мухаммед, что означает «Восхваляемый», дал ему его дед Абд аль-Мутталиб.

Количество жён пророка Мухаммеда у разных историков разнятся. Масуди, в своей книге «Муруджуз-захаб»^[13] отмечает, что пророк Мухаммед имел 15 жён. Йагуби пишет, что пророк Мухаммед имел 21 или же 23 жены, вступил в физические отношения только с 13 жёнами. Кардави указывает только на число девять, но без Хадиджи, то есть десять; Уотт Монтгомери указывает, что многие племена претендовали на родственные связи с Мухаммедом, поэтому список жён может быть сильно преувеличен. Он называет имена только одиннадцати жён (с Хадиджей), что ближе к традиционным представлениям (также он приводит имена двух наложниц)^[14] Пророк Мухаммед женился на всех до Коранического запрета, где запрещалось иметь больше четырёх жён^[15]. Ниже приведён список из 13 жён пророка Мухаммеда:

1. Хадиджа бинт Хувайлид
2. Сауда бинт Зама
3. Аиша бинт Абу Бакр
4. Хафса бинт Умар
5. Зайнаб бинт Хумайза
6. Умм Салама бинт Абу Умая
7. Зайнаб бинт Джахш
8. Джувайрия бинт аль-Харис
9. Райхана бинт Зейд
10. Сафия бинт Хуяй
11. Рамля бинт Абу Суфьян
12. Мария аль-Кибтия
13. Маймуна бинт аль-Харис

Основная статья: Дети пророка Мухаммеда

Все дети Мухаммеда, кроме Ибрагима, были от Хадиджи. Первый ребёнок от Хадиджи — аль-Касим, потом родились ат-Тахир, ат-Таййиб, Зайнаб, Рукаййа, Умм Кульсум, Фатима. Мальчики умерли в раннем детстве. Девочки дожили до начала пророческой миссии Мухаммеда, все приняли ислам, все переселились из Мекки в Медину. Все скончались до смерти Мухаммеда, кроме Фатимы. Она умерла через шесть месяцев после его смерти.

Основная статья: Потомки пророка Мухаммеда

Потомков пророка Мухаммеда через его дочь Фатиму и внука Хусейна называют сеидами. Потомки внука Хасана — шерифы. Потомки пророка Мухаммеда создали правящую династию в Марокко (Саадиты). Король Иордании Абдалла II из династии Хашимитов является прямым потомком пророка Мухаммеда в 43-м поколении.

Краткая хронология

Внешние видеофайлы
Видео о пророке Мухаммеде
	Х/ф «Мухаммад — посланник Бога». (1977)
	Х/ф «Луна Бану Хашим — Жизнь Пророка»
	М/ф «Мухаммад — последний Пророк»
	Биография «Вместе с любимым Пророком»

Сражения пророка Мухаммеда
623 — Абва · Буват · Сафаван · Аль-Ашир 624 — 1-й Бадр · Кудр · Савик · Бану Кайнука 625 — Гатафан · Бахран 626 — Ухуд · Аль-Асад · Бану Надир · Неджд 627 — 2-й Бадр · 1-й Джандаль · Битва у рва · Бану Курайза · 2-й Бану Лахьян 628 — Бану Мусталик · Худайбия · Хайбар · Фидак · 3-я Кура · Дат аль-Рика · Бану Бакра 630 — Мекка · Хунайн · Аутас · Таиф · Табук

• 570 — рождение Мухаммеда в Мекке. Ещё до рождения Мухаммеда умирает его отец и Мухаммеда отдают кормилице Халиме бинт Абу Зуайб. В течение 4 лет Мухаммед живёт с кочевом племени бедуинов Бану Сад.
• 575 — приезд кормилицы Халимы в Мекку и возвращение Мухаммада матери Амине.
• 583 — путешествие в Сирию вместе с Абу Талибом.
• 585 — участие в «Кощунственной войне», где пророк Мухаммед «отражал стрелы щитом, защищая своих дядей».
• 595 — поездка пророка Мухаммада с торговым караваном Хадиджы в город Бусру; женитьба на Хадидже.
• 575 — участие в «Союзе Благородных», суть которого была в защите беззащитных и обеспечении безопасности чужестранцев в Мекке.
• 610 — ниспослание первых откровений; начало пророческой миссии Мухаммеда.
• 613 — начало публичной проповеди Мухаммеда
• 615 — переселение в Эфиопию части сподвижников Мухаммеда от преследований (сам остаётся под покровительством дяди Абу Талиба).
• 610 — бойкот клана Бану Хашим против Мухаммеда.
• 619 — смерть Хадиджи и Абу Талиба; попытка переселения в город Ат-Таиф; окончание бойкота клана Бану Хашим против Мухаммеда.
• 620 — тайное соглашение Мухаммеда с группой жителей Медины об особой роли третейского судьи.
• 621 — Исра и Мирадж; первая присяга при Акабе.
• 622 — хиджра, переселение в Медину.

Основная статья: Мухаммед в Медине

• 623 — начало войны против мекканских многобожников
• 624 — битва при Бадре; женитьба на Аише.
• 625 — женитьба на Хафсе и Зайнаб бинт Хузайма; битва около горы Ухуд.
• 626 — женитьба на Умму Салама; битва у рва.
• 627 — женитьба на Джувейрие бинт Харис и Зайнаб бинт Джахш.
• 628 — женитьба на Сафие бинт Хуай, Умм Хабибе и Маймуне бинт Харис; Байа Ридван и Худайбийский мирный договор; попытка Зайнаб бинт Харис отравить пророка Мухаммада.
• 629 — мирное паломничество мусульман и Мухаммеда в мекканское святилище при Каабе; нарушение курайшитами соглашения при Худейбии.
• 630 — капитуляция Мекки; прибытие групп Бани Укайл, Бани Калб, Бани Килаб, Бани Туджиб, Бани Гатафан, Бани Ханзала бин Малик, Бани Кудаа, Бали и Бани Бахра в Медину и принятие ими ислама.
• 631 — прибытие групп Бани Азд, Абна, Бани Тай, Бани Амир бин Сасаа, Бани Кинда, Бани Туджиб, Бани Рахавийин, Бани Гафик, Бани Махра, Бани Ханифа, Бани Анс, Бани Мурад, Бани Абд аль-кайс, Бани Хилаль, Бани Руха и Бани Зубайда в Медину и принятие ислама.
• 632 — прощальное паломничество в Мекку; прибытие в Медину одной группы из Бани Мухариба и Бани Наха и принятие ими ислама; 8 июня — смерть и похороны пророка Мухаммада.^[16][17]

Современники

Первыми людьми, принявшими ислам, после Хадиджи, были: Али ибн Абу Талиб, Зайд ибн Харис, Абу Бакр ас-Сиддик, Усман ибн Аффан, Аз-Зубайр ибн Аль-Аввам, Абд ар-Рахман ибн Ауф, Саад ибн Абу Ваккас, Тальха ибн Убайдулла и другие.

Среди тех, кто ненавидел пророка Мухаммеда был его родной дядя Абу Лахаб и его жена, Абу Джахль, Укба ибн Абу Муайта и другие. Некоторые из тех, кто враждовал с пророком Мухаммедом впоследствии приняли ислам, как это сделал Абу Суфьян ибн Харб и другие.

Роль в истории

Пророк Мухаммед признан американским писателем и учёным Майклом Хартом (en) в книге «100 великих людей (en)» самой влиятельной личностью за всю историю.

Арабский мир после Мухаммеда

К моменту смерти Мухаммеда в 632 году в ислам был обращён весь Аравийский полуостров, а вскоре после смерти пророка его преемники («заместители», халифы) покорили огромные территории азиатских и африканских владений Византийской империи, распространяя ислам, арабскую культуру и язык. Халифат при Аббасидах был самой крупной империей своего времени, простиравшейся от Атлантического океана до Китая.

Последняя проповедь Мухаммеда

Некоторые люди^[кто?] называют эту проповедь манифестом прав человека в исламе.

Последняя проповедь была сказана Мухаммедом в десятый год по хиджре, когда немусульманам было запрещено посещать Священную Каабу. Мухаммед отправился во главе с 14 тысячью мусульман из Медины в Хадж в Мекку. На 9-й день месяца Зуль-Хиджа Мухаммед пригласил всех мусульман, прибывших в Мекку для совершения хаджа к горе Джабаль аль-Рахман на Арафате и говорил с ними. Некоторые цитаты из этой проповеди (перевод проф. Ашик-Саида Конурбаева):

• О, люди, воистину, кровь ваша, ваше имущество и честь ваша священны и неприкосновенны до тех пор, пока вы не предстанете перед Господом, так же как священны для всех вас этот день и этот месяц. Воистину, вы встретитесь с вашим Господом и будете держать ответ за все ваши поступки.
• И помните, никто не несет ответ за преступление, кроме совершившего его. Сын не отвечает за преступления своего отца, и отец не отвечает за преступления своего сына.
• Знайте, что мусульманин мусульманину — брат, и вместе они образуют братство. Ничто из того, что принадлежит мусульманину, не является законным для другого мусульманина, если только тот по доброй воле не позволяет ему этого. Так не притесняйте же друг друга.
• И ещё говорю я вам, все язычество и заблуждения — под ногой моей, и ушла в прошлое кровная месть времен джахилии.
• Ростовщичество запрещено, но вы можете вернуть себе номинальную сумму долга. Не сотворите никому несправедливости — и несправедливость минует вас.
• О люди! Бойтесь Аллаха в отношениях с женщинами. Воистину, вы берете их под покровительство Аллаха и они законны для вас, согласно слову Аллаха! Истинно говорю вам — у вас есть права по отношению к вашим женщинам, и ваши женщины имеют права по отношению к вам. И есть у них право не совершать дурного, а если станут они поступать так, — есть у вас власть наказать их, но не слишком сурово. Если жены ваши избегают дурного и преданы вам — одевайте и кормите их по возможности.
• Вот говорю я вам, руководите вашими женами, но делайте это по-доброму.
• О люди! Прислушивайтесь и подчиняйтесь даже искалеченному абиссинскому рабу, который будет вашим амиром (предводителем), если он поставлен среди вас и исполняет предписания Книги Аллаха.
• Дети принадлежат брачному ложу, а нарушитель брачных уз да будет побиваем камнями.
• Воистину, я оставил среди вас Книгу Аллаха и Сунну Его Пророка. И если вы станете придерживаться их, то никогда не собьетесь с Правильного пути.
• И подумайте о рабах ваших! Кормите их той пищей, которой питаетесь сами, и одевайте их в ту одежду, что носите сами. И если они совершают проступки, которые вы не можете простить, — тогда расстаньтесь с ними, ибо они слуги Аллаха — и не вам исправлять их пути.
• О люди! Воистину, у вас один Господь и у вас один отец. Все вы — потомки Адама, а Адам был сотворен из глины. И нет преимущества у араба перед неарабом, и нет преимущества у неараба — перед арабом. И нет преимущества у белого человека перед чернокожим, и у чернокожего — перед белым, разве что лишь в богобоязненности. Истинно, истинно говорю вам — благороднейший из вас тот, кто наиболее богобоязнен.^[18]

Мухаммед в Коране

Имя «Мухаммед» употребляется в Коране только пять раз (для сравнения Иса (Иисус) упоминается 25 раз, столько же упоминается Адам, Муса (Моисей) — 136 раз, Ибрахим (Авраам)— 69, Нух (Ной)— 43).^[19] Оно упоминается в 3:144, 145, 33:40, 47:2, 48:29 как Мухаммед^[20] и один раз в аяте 61:6 как Ахмад. Также 47-ая сура Корана называется «Мухаммад».

Чудеса Мухаммеда

• Коран — главное чудо. Чудо (в арабском языке это слово «му’джаза». Оно образовано от глагола «а’джаза» и означает «делать неспособным (слабым, бессильным)»^[21]) понимается что-либо, что не способен сделать обычным человек. Если же чудо должно свидетельствовать в пользу того, что человек является пророком, то это чудо должно быть непосредственно связано с этим человеком, то есть например, фонтан, забивший из скалы среди пустыни является чудом, но он не всегда может служить в качестве доказательства, а вот если это произойдёт, когда пророк ударит посохом о скалу, то это уже может считаться знамением. Главным чудом Мухаммеда мусульманские богословы считают Коран. Несмотря на то, что авторство Корана в немусульманских источниках может приписывать самому Мухаммеду, теоретически доказать это невозможно, так как сам он, будучи единственным передатчиком Корана, отвергал его человеческое происхождение (соответственно и своё авторство), никаких же письменных работ после себя он не оставил, потому как был безграмотен. Переданные хадисы говорят о том, что его речь не была сходна с Коранической. Коран отвечает вышеназванным требованиям к чуду. Он является чудом (в частности, в его арабском значении), потому как никто не смог написать ничего подобного ему. Выдающиеся художественные достоинства Корана безусловно признаны всеми знатоками арабской словесности.^[22] (однако многие из них теряются при буквальном переводе). В Коране делается вызов (тахадди) людям, не признавшим за Мухаммедом пророка: Или же они говорят: «Он выдумал его». Скажи: «Сочините хотя бы одну суру, подобную этим, и призовите, кого сможете, кроме Аллаха, если вы говорите правду»^[23]. Если бы это было сделано, об этом было бы безусловно известно, так как у Мухаммеда во все времена было очень много критиков, а написание чего-либо подобного Корану было бы избавлением от Мухаммеда, который был для язычников (особенно курайшитов времён Мухаммеда, соплеменниками, носителями того же языка, того же диалекта, что и Мухаммед, принимавшими все возможные способы для устранения ислама), христиан и иудеев серьёзнейшей политической и общественной угрозой, а особенно во времена его непосредственной деятельности. Однако человечеству за всю его средневековую, новую и новейшую историю не удалось написать ничего подобного Корану^[24][25]. Таким образом это является чудом, а доказательствами того, что оно связано с Мухаммедом являются, например, аяты Корана, в которых говорится о Мухаммеде и том, что он пророк.
• Разделение Луны на две части. Отрывок из Корана, на который обычно ссылаются: Час (Божьего суда) настал, и раскололся месяц. Но даже если их глазам предстанет ясное знамение (Аллаха), они отворотятся от него и скажут: «Сие лишь временное колдовство» (Сура 54:1-2) Об этом же чуде в хадисах: Анас рассказывал, что люди потребовали от посланника Аллаха (да пребудет он с миром) показать чудо, и он показал им разделенную луну (Ас-Сахих ал-Бухари, том 4, с. 533)
• Предание о хлебе, аналогичное истории о том, как Иисус накормил пять тысяч человек пятью хлебами и двумя рыбами:

Однажды в путешествии закончилась пища, и люди дошли до нищеты. Они пошли к посланнику (да пребудет он с миром) и попросили разрешения зарезать своих верблюдов, и он согласился. Умар встретил их по пути, и они рассказали ему об этом, и он сказал: «Как вы собираетесь выжить после того, как забьете верблюдов?» Затем он пошел к посланнику и сказал: «О посланник Аллаха! Как же они выживут после того, как зарежут своих верблюдов?» Посланник Аллаха приказал Умару: «Созови людей, и пусть они принесут всю еду, которая ещё осталась». Были расстелены шкуры, и вся походная пища была сложена на них. Посланник Аллаха поднялся и попросил Аллаха благословить её, затем он направил людей за посудой, и они начали брать из этой кучи до тех пор, пока каждый не взял себе достаточное количество. Затем посланник Аллаха сказал: «Я свидетельствую, что никто не имеет права, чтобы ему поклонялись, кроме Аллаха, а я его посланник».^[26]

• Получение воды из пальцев.

Анас бин Малик рассказывал: «Я видел посланника Аллаха (да пребудет он с миром), когда подошло время молитвы Аср, и люди искали воду, дабы совершить омовение, но не могли найти её. Позже вода (полный горшок) для омовения была принесена к посланнику Аллаха. Он опустил руки в горшок и сказал людям совершить омовение из него. Я видел воду, выливающуюся из-под его пальцев до тех пор, пока все не совершили омовение (это было одно из чудес пророка)»^[27].

• Вздыхающий пальмовый ствол. Будучи в Медине Мухаммед во время молитвы опирался на ствол пальмы «хуннан». Для удобства пальму срубили, а на этом месте соорудили кафедру, мимбар. Оставшись в одиночестве, дерево принялось вздыхать, желая прикосновений рук пророка. Узнав о его горе, Мухаммед приказал принести ствол обратно.

В жизнеописаниях и сводах хадисов описываются много чудес, например во время рытья рва вокруг Медины, верные предсказания (см. например День воскресения в исламе), чудеса с различными физическими объектами итд. Выводы некоторых исследователей о том, что Мухаммед не делал никаких чудес^[28] считаются мусульманами безосновательными потому, что существование такого Писания, как Коран не может подвергнуться сомнению.

Интересные факты

• Мухаммед был абсолютно неграмотен; не умел читать и писать.
• Выражение «Если гора не идет к Магомету, то Магомет идет к горе» никакого отношения к деятельности Мухаммеда не имеет. Изначально оно основано на рассказе о Ходже Насреддине, но английский учёный и философ Фрэнсис Бэкон в своей книге «Нравственные и политические очерки» привел собственный вариант рассказа о Ходже, заменив Ходжу на Мухаммеда.^[29]
• Мухаммед и его сподвижники часто привязывали к животу камень, чтобы не чувствовать голода.
• Мухаммед называл войну обманом (имея в виду всевозможные уловки и хитрости).
• Некоторые христианские писатели положительно отзываются о Мухаммеде^[30].
• Лондонский журнал Time Out в одной из своих статей назвал Мухаммеда первым экологом.^[31]
• Кефирный грибок ранее назывался «Пшено Пророка». По легенде, под этим именем секрет его взращивания передал жителям Кавказа пророк Мухаммед.^[32]
• Согласно хадисам, Мухаммед в течение дня и ночи обходил всех своих жён. Сподвижники говорили между собой, что «он был наделён силой «тридцати»».^[33]

Высказывания известных людей о личности и деятельности Мухаммеда

Положительные

• «О Мухаммад! Я опечален, что не был твоим современником. Человечество только единожды увидело твою великую силу, и больше никогда её не сможет увидеть. Я восхищаюсь тобой!» Отто Бисмарк^[34]
• «Он не поэт, а пророк, и его Коран — это божественный закон, а не книга, написанная человеком для развлечения или повышения общей образованности» Иоганн Вольфганг Гёте^[35]
• «Он не был ни цезарем, ни папой. У него никогда не было таких претензий. За его спиной не было их войск. Ни о какой личной охране и речи не было. Он не имел ни жалования, ни определённого материального состояния. Никогда он не жил во дворцах. Если кто-нибудь мог вести за собой массы лишь с помощью религиозных канонов, то это был Мухаммад. Он никогда не нуждался в поддержке или в специальной одежде. Он никогда не переоценивал себя. Право быть пророком, без сомнения, принадлежало ему. Ныне те, кто исследует жизнь и взгляды этого пророка, глубоко преклоняются перед его величием. На эту тему я могла бы сказать многое, но в обобщенном виде я хотела бы отметить: любой текст о нём вызывает во мне чувство преклонения и восхищения. И надолго я остаюсь в плену этого замечательного учителя.» Анни Безант^[36]
• «Я всегда с большим уважением относился к религии Мухаммада из-из её высокой жизненности. Это единственная религия которая на мой взгляд обладает способностью адаптапции к изменяющимся условиям жизни, что [без сомнения] может понравиться людям любого возраста. Я изучил его жизнь — по моему он удивительный человек — уж никак не антихрист, напротив — его можно называть спасителем человечества». «Думаю, что если бы человеку, подобному ему были даны права диктатора в современном мире, он смог бы решить его проблемы так, что эти решения принесли столь желаемый мир и счастье: я предсказывал о вере Мухаммада, что она будет принята завтрашней Европой, и она уже начинает приниматься Европой современной.» Бернард Шоу^[37]
• «Итак, теперь мы можем сказать, что Мохаммед был одним из самых великих людей, которых знала история. Некоторые историки умаляли величие пророка в силу собственных религиозных предубеждений, но сегодня ему воздают должное даже христианские писатели.» Гюстав Лебон^[38]

Отрицательные

• «Основная ограниченность в миросозерцании Мухаммеда и в основанной им религии это отсутствие идеала человеческого совершенства или совершенного соединения человека с Богом, идеала истинной богочеловечности. Мусульманство требует от верующего не бесконечного совершенствования, а только акта безусловной преданности Богу. Конечно, и с христианской точки зрения без такого акта невозможно достижение совершенства для человека; но сам по себе этот акт преданности ещё не составляет совершенства». Владимир Сергеевич Соловьёв^[39]
• «Конечно, я не мог не задавать себе вопроса: „А если бы арабы были христианами?“ Лично для меня совершенно очевидно, что фаталистическое учение Мухаммеда и униженное положение женщин — главная причина отставания этого народа в развитии. Он практически остался таким же, каким был в VII веке, в то время как мы ушли далеко вперёд. Думается, эта мысль могла бы лечь в основу убедительной проповеди в защиту преимуществ христианства». Джордж Паттон^[40]
• «Похоже, что в этом человеке уживались значительные гордыня, жадность, хитрость, способность к самообману, но и совершенно откровенная религиозная страстность». Герберт Уэллс^[41]

Медицина пророка Мухаммеда

Пророк Мухаммед был не только сугубо религиозно-политическим деятелем^[42]. Мухаммеду принадлежат слова о том, что от любого заболевания есть лекарство. Если оно точно будет выбрано, то человек выздоровеет, по воле Творца, и что Аллах низвел болезни и вместе с ними лечебные средства. Кто-то знает о них, а кто-то — нет^[43] Мухаммед говорил, что исцеление (приносят) три (вещи): глоток мёда, надрез пиявки (кровопускание) и прижигание, но он запретил прижигание. Однако этот запрет, как говорят исламские учёные, не абсолютно категоричен и в случае особо крайней нужды допустим.^[44] При болезни живота, Мухаммед рекомендовал мёд^[45]. Мухаммед говорил о том, что масло чёрного тмина является средством от любой болезни, кроме смерти^[46] Мухаммед рекомендовал пользоваться индийским ладаном, так как исцеляет «от семи недугов», и ещё его курения нужно вдыхать тем, у кого болит горло, и класть в рот тем, кто страдает плевритом^[47]. Он сказал, чтобы люди не мучили своих детей, у которых воспаляются миндалины, надавливая на них, а использовали курения ладана^[48]. Он говорил своим последователям, что лучшими средствами для их лечения являются кровопускание и морской ладан (янтарь).^[48] Ещё одно высказывание: «Если муха упадёт в питьё кого-нибудь из вас, пусть он (сначала) погрузит её (в это питьё полностью), а потом вытащит её (оттуда) ибо, поистине, на одном её крыле — болезнь, а на другом — исцеление»^[49] имеет современное научное обоснование.^[50]. Однажды в качестве лечения Мухаммед приказал пить мочу и молоко дойных верблюдиц. Крупный мусульманский учёный Абдуль-Маджид аз-Зиндани, который говорит, что нашёл лекарство от СПИДа и что университет «Иман», ректором которого он является, предоставляет это лекарство бесплатно, рассказывает что благодаря своей работе фармацевтом, он смог правильно понять хадисы пророка.^[51]

Некоторые изречения

• «Оставь внушающее тебе сомнение (и обратись) к тому, что сомнений у тебя не вызывает, ведь, поистине, правда это спокойствие, а ложь — сомнение»^[52]
• «Пусть язык твой постоянно наслаждается поминанием Аллаха»
• «Самым любимым из благих дел пред Богом является то, что постоянно, даже если оно незначительно.»
• «Религия — легкость»
• «Каковы вы есть, таковы те, кто правит вами»^[53]
• «Проявляющие излишнюю щепетильность и чрезмерную строгость — погибнут»^[54]
• «Горе тебе! Держись её ног (матери), там Рай!»^[55]
• «Рай находится в тени (ваших) мечей»^[56]
• «Аллах мой, прибегаю к Тебе от знания бесполезного…»^[57]
• «Совершенство веры мусульманина проявляется в том, что он оставляет и отказывается от пустого и бессмысленного»^[58]
• «Человек с тем, кого он полюбил»
• «Тому, кто поручится мне за то, что находится между его челюстей и между его ног, я поручусь за (то, что он войдёт в) рай»^[59]
• «Верующего не ужалят дважды из одной и той же норы»^[60]
• «Иудеи — люди Писания (народ Книги)»^{[61][62][63][63]}

Цитаты, получившие общественный резонанс

• «(Если мусульманин) поменяет свою религию, убейте его» — хадис достоверен. Имеет неоднозначную трактовку^[64]. Есть достоверный хадис от Аиши, в котором она говорит о возможности казни мусульманина в трёх случаях, один из которых отречение от веры и борьба против Аллаха и Его Посланника^[65]. При этом, согласно этому хадису, альтернативой казни является изгнание. По поводу принудительного же обращения в ислам неоднозначность отсутствует: «Нет принуждения в вере».

Характер

Попытка показать характер Мухаммеда была предпринята в 30-серийном художественном фильме «Луна рода Хашим» снятом в 2008 году при сотрудничестве киностудий 4 мусульманских государстве — Иордании, Ливана, Сирии и Судана.

Последователи

С исламской точки зрения мусульмане («муслим» — покорный Богу) были всегда, начиная с Адама и Хавы (Евы). Число мусульман на данный момент во всём мире оценивается примерно в 1,1 до 1,2 миллиардов человек.^[66]

Критика

Первыми критиками Мухаммеда были его соплеменники — курайшиты. Эта критика отличалась общим недоверием и консерватизмом. Об этой критике можно судить лишь из Корана и по биографиям Мухаммеда. Критика в адрес Мухаммеда была со стороны византийских историков, однако эта критика отличается искажением облика Мухаммеда. Французские энциклопедисты конца XVIII века пишут следующее: «Мухаммед — известный обманщик, лжепророк и лжеучитель, основатель ереси»^[67] Предметом критики является личная жизнь Мухаммеда. Согласно некоторым источникам, возраст одной из жён Мухаммеда, Аиши составлял 9 лет. Это мнение не отрицается мусульманами (хотя о возрасте Аиши есть ряд альтернативных хадисов, в которых говорится о возрасте 13, 17 и даже 27 лет^{[источник не указан 35 дней]}), но в мусульманском мире этим сведениям придаётся другое значение, что выражается в открытой защите, выраженной в различного рода литературе.

В искусстве

кинематограф:

• Фильм «Мухаммад — посланник Бога»
• Мультфильм «Мухаммед: последний пророк»

См. также

Примечания

Статьи в энциклопедических словарях

	Портал «Ислам»
	Мухаммед в Викицитатнике?
	Muhammad на Викискладе?

• Мухаммад // «Кругосвет»
• А. Али-заде. Мухаммад // Исламский энциклопедический словарь. — М.: Ансар, 2007.
• М. Б. Пиотровский. Мухаммад // Ислам: Энциклопедический словарь. — М.: Наука, 1991. — С.178—182
• Мохаммед // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона .

Биографическая литература

• Ибн Хишам. Сира Пророка Мухаммеда
• Сафи ар-Рахман аль-Мубаркфури. Жизнеописание посланника Аллаха.
• Хасан М. Бальюзи. «Мухаммад и развитие Ислама»
• В. Ф. Панова, Ю. Б. Вахтин. Жизнь Мухаммеда — М.: Политиздат, 1990. — ISBN 5-250-00780-5.
• «Жизнь Пророка Мухаммада» (группа авторов организации «Дар Рахи Хакк»)

Исламские пророки
Посланники	Адам (ислам) • Адам | Нух • Ной | Ибрахим • Авраам | Муса • Моисей | Иса • Иисус | Мухаммед
Пророки	Идрис • Енох | Шис • Сиф | Худ | Салих | Лут • Лот | Исмаил • Измаил | Исхак • Исаак | Якуб • Иаков | Юсуф • Иосиф | Аюб • Иов | Шуайб • Иофор| Харун • Аарон | Йуша ибн Нун • Иисус Навин | Ильяс • Илия | Аль-Яса • Елисей | Зуль-Кифль • Иезекииль | Ишмоил • Самуил | Юнус • Иона | Давуд • Давид | Сулейман • Соломон | Закария • Захария | Яхья • Иоанн
Праведники	Билкис • Царица Савская | Имран • Святой Иоаким | Зуль-Карнайн | Лукман | Мариам • Мария | Узайр • Ездра | Хидр | Шем’ун