Как правильно пишется тутанхамон

Tutankhamun
Tutankhaten, Tutankhamen[1]
Tutankhamun’s golden mask
Pharaoh
Reign	c. 1332 – 1323 BC, New Kingdom (18th Dynasty)
Predecessor	Neferneferuaten
Successor	Ay (granduncle/grandfather-in-law)
Royal titulary
Consort	Ankhesenamun (half-sister)
Children	2 (317a and 317b)
Father	KV55 mummy,[5] identified as most likely Akhenaten
Mother	The Younger Lady
Born	c. 1341 BC
Died	c. 1323 BC (aged 18–19)
Burial	KV62

Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen^[a] ( ;^[6] Ancient Egyptian: twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn; c. 1341 BC – 1323 BC), also referred to as King Tut, was an Egyptian pharaoh. Having ruled over the New Kingdom of Egypt, he was the last of his royal family to exercise governance during the Eighteenth Dynasty, with his reign lasting from c. 1332 BC until c. 1323 BC in the conventional Egyptian chronology. Through DNA testing, his father was identified as the mummy within tomb KV55 and his mother was identified as a mummy from tomb KV35, with his mother having been his father’s sister. The mummy of Tutankhamun’s father is speculated to be of the pharaoh Akhenaten, though this is disputed; the mummy of Tutankhamun’s mother is informally called «The Younger Lady» but is otherwise unknown.^[7]

Tutankhamun took the throne at eight or nine years of age, under the unprecedented viziership of his eventual successor, Ay, to whom he may have been related. Within tomb KV21, the mummy KV21A was identified as having been the biological mother of Tutankhamun’s two daughters — it is therefore speculated that this mummy is of his only known wife, Ankhesenamun, who was his paternal half-sister. Their two daughters were identified as the 317a and 317b mummies; daughter 317a was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy while daughter 317b was born at full-term, though both died in infancy.^[8] His names — Tutankhaten and Tutankhamun — are thought to have meant «living image of Aten» and «living image of Amun» in the ancient Egyptian language, with the god Aten having been replaced by the god Amun after Akhenaten’s death. Some Egyptologists, including Battiscombe Gunn, have claimed that the translation may be incorrect, instead being closer to «the-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing» or «one-perfect-of-life-is-Aten» (latter translation by Gerhard Fecht [de]).

Tutankhamun restored the ancient Egyptian religion against Akhenaten’s Atenism and also relocated Egypt’s capital back to Thebes, undoing Akhenaten’s earlier relocation of the capital to Amarna. He also enriched and endowed the priestly orders of two important cults, initiated a restoration process for old monuments that were damaged during the Amarna Period, and reburied his father’s remains in the Valley of the Kings. Tutankhamun suffered from a deformed left foot and bone necrosis, which rendered him physically disabled and dependent on assistive canes. He also had other health issues, including scoliosis, and had contracted several strains of malaria.

In 1922, a team led by British Egyptologist Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings excavated Tutankhamun’s tomb, in an effort that was funded by British aristocrat George Herbert.^[9] The discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb received worldwide press coverage; with over 5,000 artifacts, it gave rise to renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun’s mask, now preserved at the Egyptian Museum, remains a popular symbol. The deaths of some individuals who were involved in the unearthing of Tutankhamun’s mummy have been popularly attributed to the «curse of the pharaohs» due to the similarity of their circumstances. Some of his treasure has traveled worldwide with unprecedented response; the Egyptian government allowed tours beginning in 1961. Tutankhamun has, since the discovery of his intact tomb, been referred to as «King Tut» in colloquial terms.^[10]

Family

Tutankhamun, whose original name was Tutankhaten or Tutankhuaten, was born during the reign of Akhenaten, during the late Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.^[11] Akhenaten’s reign was characterized by a dramatic shift in ancient Egyptian religion, known as Atenism, and the relocation of the capital to the site of Amarna, which gave its name to the modern term for this era, the Amarna Period.^[12] Toward the end of the Amarna Period, two other pharaohs appear in the record who were apparently Akhenaten’s co-regents: Neferneferuaten, a female ruler who may have been Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti or his daughter Meritaten; and Smenkhkare, whom some Egyptologists believe was the same person as Neferneferuaten but most regard as a distinct figure.^[13] It is uncertain whether Smenkhkare’s reign outlasted Akhenaten’s, whereas Neferneferuaten is now thought to have become co-regent shortly before Akhenaten’s death and to have reigned for some time after it.^[14]

An inscription from Hermopolis refers to «Tutankhuaten» as a «king’s son», and he is generally thought to have been the son of Akhenaten,^[15] although some suggest instead that Smenkhkare was his father.^[16] Inscriptions from Tutankhamun’s reign treat him as a son of Akhenaten’s father, Amenhotep III, but that is only possible if Akhenaten’s 17-year reign included a long co-regency with his father,^[17] a possibility that many Egyptologists once supported but is now being abandoned.^[18]

While some suggestions have been made that Tutankhamun’s mother was Meketaten, the second daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, based on a relief from the Royal Tomb at Amarna,^[b] this possibility has been deemed unlikely given that she was about 10 years old at the time of her death.^[20] Another interpretation of the relief names Nefertiti as his mother.^[c][22] Meritaten has also been put forward as his mother based on a re-examination of a box lid and coronation tunic found in his tomb.^[23] Tutankhamun was wet nursed by a woman named Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.^[24][25]

In 2008, genetic analysis was carried out on the mummified remains of Tutankhamun and others thought or known to be New Kingdom royalty by a team from University of Cairo. The results indicated that his father was the mummy from tomb KV55, identified as Akhenaten, and that his mother was the mummy from tomb KV35, known as the «Younger Lady», who was found to be a full sister of her husband.^[26] The team reported it was over 99.99 percent certain that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.^[27] More recent genetic analysis, published in 2020, revealed Tutankhamun had the haplogroups YDNA R1b, which originated in Europe and which today makes up 50–90% of the genetic pool of modern western Europeans, and mtDNA K, which originated in the Near East. He shares this Y-haplogroup with his father, the KV55 mummy (Akhenaten), and grandfather, Amenhotep III, and his mtDNA haplogroup with his mother, The Younger Lady, his grandmother, Tiye, and his great-grandmother, Thuya, upholding the results of the earlier genetic study. The profiles for Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III were incomplete and the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results. Because the relationships of these two mummies with the KV55 mummy had previously been confirmed in an earlier study, the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the KV55 data.^[28]

The identity of The Younger Lady is unknown but she cannot be Nefertiti, as she was not known to be a sister of Akhenaten.^[29] However, researchers such as Marc Gabolde and Aidan Dodson claim that Nefertiti was indeed Tutankhamun’s mother. In this interpretation of the DNA results, the genetic closeness is not due to a brother-sister pairing but the result of three generations of first-cousin marriage, making Nefertiti a first cousin of Akhenaten.^[30] The validity and reliability of the genetic data from mummified remains has been questioned due to possible degradation due to decay.^[31]

When Tutankhaten became king, he married Ankhesenpaaten, one of Akhenaten’s daughters, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun.^[32] They had two daughters, neither of whom survived infancy.^[26] While only an incomplete genetic profile was obtained from the two mummified foetuses, it was enough to confirm that Tutankhamun was their father.^[26] Likewise, only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained so far. KV21A has been suggested as the mother of the foetuses but the data is not statistically significant enough to allow her to be securely identified as Ankhesenamun.^[26] Computed tomography studies published in 2011 revealed that one daughter was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at full-term, 9 months.^[8] Tutankhamun’s death marked the end of the royal line of the 18th Dynasty.^[33]

Reign

Tutankhamun was between eight and nine years of age when he ascended the throne and became pharaoh,^[36] taking the throne name Nebkheperure.^[37] He reigned for about nine years.^[38] During Tutankhamun’s reign the position of Vizier had been split between Upper and Lower Egypt. The principal vizier for Upper Egypt was Usermontu. Another figure named Pentju was also vizier but it is unclear of which lands. It is not entirely known if Ay, Tutankhamun’s successor, actually held this position. A gold foil fragment from KV58 seems to indicate, but not certainly, that Ay was referred to as a Priest of Maat along with an epithet of «vizier, doer of maat.» The epithet does not fit the usual description used by the regular vizier but might indicate an informal title. It might be that Ay used the title of vizier in an unprecedented manner.^[39]

An Egyptian priest named Manetho wrote a comprehensive history of ancient Egypt where he refers to a king named Orus, who ruled for 36 years and had a daughter named Acencheres who reigned twelve years and her brother Rathotis who ruled for only nine years.^[40][41] The Amarna rulers are central in the list but which name corresponds with which historic figure is not agreed upon by researchers. Orus and Acencheres have been identified with Horemheb and Akhenaten and Rathotis with Tutankhamun. The names are also associated with Smenkhkare, Amenhotep III, Ay and the others in differing order.^[42]

Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime.^[43] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.^[44]

In order for the pharaoh, who held divine office, to be linked to the people and the gods, special epithets were created for them at their accession to the throne. The ancient Egyptian titulary also served to demonstrate one’s qualities and link them to the terrestrial realm. The five names were developed over the centuries beginning with the Horus name.^[d][45][46] Tutankhamun’s^[e] original nomen, Tutankhaten,^[47] did not have a Nebty name^[f] or a Gold Falcon name^[g] associated with it^[48] as nothing has been found with the full five-name protocol.^[h] Tutankhaten was believed to mean «Living-image-of-Aten» as far back as 1877; however, not all Egyptologists agree with this interpretation. English Egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn believed that the older interpretation did not fit with Akhenaten’s theology. Gunn believed that such an name would have been blasphemous. He saw tut as a verb and not a noun and gave his translation in 1926 as The-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing. Professor Gerhard Fecht also believed the word tut was a verb. He noted that Akhenaten used tit as a word for ‘image’, not tut. Fecht translated the verb tut as «To be perfect/complete». Using Aten as the subject, Fecht’s full translation was «One-perfect-of-life-is-Aten». The Hermopolis Block (two carved block fragments discovered in Ashmunein) has a unique spelling of the first nomen written as Tutankhuaten; it uses ankh as a verb, which does support the older translation of Living-image-of-Aten.^[48]

End of Amarna period

Once crowned and after «taking counsel» with the god Amun, Tutankhamun made several endowments that enriched and added to the priestly numbers of the cults of Amun and Ptah. He commissioned new statues of the deities from the best metals and stone and had new processional barques made of the finest cedar from Lebanon and had them embellished with gold and silver. The priests and all of the attending dancers, singers and attendants had their positions restored and a decree of royal protection granted to insure their future stability.^[49]

Tutankhamun’s second year as pharaoh began the return to the old Egyptian order. Both he and his queen removed ‘Aten’ from their names, replacing it with Amun and moved the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. He renounced the god Aten, relegating it to obscurity and returned Egyptian religion to its polytheistic form. His first act as a pharaoh was to remove his father’s mummy from his tomb at Akhetaten and rebury it in the Valley of the Kings. This helped strengthen his reign. Tutankhamun rebuilt the stelae, shrines, and buildings at Karnak. He added works to Luxor as well as beginning the restoration of other temples throughout Egypt that were pillaged by Akhenaten.^[50]

Campaigns, monuments, and construction

The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armor, folding stools appropriate for military campaigns, and bows, and he was trained in archery.^[51] However, given his youth and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, most historians speculate that he did not personally take part in these battles.^[7][52]

Given his age, the king probably had advisers which presumably included Ay (who succeeded Tutankhamun) and General Horemheb, Ay’s possible son in law and successor. Horemheb records that the king appointed him «lord of the land» as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.^[52]

In his third regnal year Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father’s reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten was abandoned.^[53] As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, where he laid out the sphinx avenue leading to the temple of Mut. The sphinxes were originally made for Akhenaten and Nefertiti; they were given new ram heads and small statues of the king.^[54] At Luxor temple he completed the decoration of the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III.^[55] Monuments defaced under Akhenaten were restored, and new cult images of the god Amun were created. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet, and Opet. His Restoration Stela erected in front of Karnak temple says:

The temples of the gods and goddesses … were in ruins. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown. Their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads … the gods turned their backs upon this land … If anyone made a prayer to a god for advice he would never respond.^[56]

A building called the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-Beloved-of-Amun-Who-Puts-Thebes-in-Order, which may be identical to a building called Temple-of-Nebkheperre-in-Thebes, a possible mortuary temple, used recycled talatat from Akhenaten’s east Karnak Aten temples indicating that the dismantling of these temples was already underway.^[57] Many of Tutankhamun’s construction projects were uncompleted at the time of his death and were completed by or usurped by his successors, especially Horemheb. The sphinx avenue was completed by his successor Ay and the whole was usurped by Horemheb. The Restoration Stele was usurped by Horemheb; pieces of the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-in-Thebes were recycled into Horemheb’s own building projects.^[58]

Health and death

Tutankhamun was slight of build, and roughly 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) tall.^[59][60] He had large front incisors and an overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged.^[61] Analysis of the clothing found in his tomb, particularly the dimensions of his loincloths and belts indicates that he had a narrow waist and rounded hips.^[62] In attempts to explain both his unusual depiction in art and his early death it has been theorised that Tutankhamun had gynecomastia,^[63] Marfan syndrome, Wilson–Turner X-linked intellectual disability syndrome, Fröhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy), Klinefelter syndrome,^[64] androgen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, Antley–Bixler syndrome or one of its variants.^[65] It has also been suggested that he had inherited temporal lobe epilepsy in a bid to explain the religiosity of his great-grandfather Thutmose IV and father Akhenaten and their early deaths.^[66] However, caution has been urged in this diagnosis.^[67]

In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom Pharaoh’s crania and skeletal remains, which included the mummified remains of Tutankhamun. The authors determined that the royal mummies of the 18th Dynasty bore strong similarities to contemporary Nubians with slight differences.^[68]

In January 2005 Tutankhamun’s mummy was CT scanned. The results showed that the young king had a partially cleft hard palate and possibly a mild case of scoliosis.^[69][70] Additionally, he was diagnosed with a flat right foot with hypophalangism, while his left foot was clubbed and had bone necrosis of the second and third metatarsals (Freiberg disease or Köhler disease II).^[71] However, the clubfoot diagnosis is disputed.^[72] James Gamble instead suggests that the position is a result of Tutankhamun habitually walking on the outside of his foot due to the pain caused by Köhler disease II;^[73] this theory has been refuted by members of Hawass’ team.^[74] The condition may have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of a cane, many of which were found in his tomb.^[26] Genetic testing through STR analysis rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley–Bixler syndrome) or Marfan syndrome.^[7] Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun’s.^[7] This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the ailment.^[75] The team discovered DNA from several strains of the parasite, indicating that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. His malaria infections may have caused a fatal immune response in the body or triggered circulatory shock.^[76] The CT scan also showed that he had experienced a compound left leg fracture. This injury being the result of modern damage was ruled out based on the ragged edges of the fracture; modern damage features sharp edges. Embalming substances were present within the fracture indicating that it was associated with an open wound; no signs of healing were present.^[77]

A facial reconstruction of Tutankhamun was carried out in 2005 by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities and National Geographic. Three separate teams—Egyptian, French, and American—worked separately to approximate the face of the boy king. While the Egyptian and French teams knew their subject was Tutankhamun, the American team worked blind. All teams produced very similar results, but it was that of the French team that was ultimately cast in silicone.^[78][79]

Stuart Tyson Smith, Egyptologist and professor of anthropology at University of California, Santa Barbara, in 2008 expressed criticism of the forensic reconstruction in a journal review. He noted that “Tutankhamun’s face” was depicted as “very light-skinned” which reflected a “bias” among media outlets. Smith further added that “Egyptologists have been strangely reluctant to admit that the ancient Egyptians were rather dark-skinned Africans, especially the farther south one goes”.^[80]

Cause of death

There are no surviving records of the circumstances of Tutankhamun’s death; it has been the subject of considerable debate and major studies.^[81]
Hawass and his team postulate that his death was likely the result of the combination of his multiple weakening disorders, a leg fracture, perhaps as the result of a fall, and a severe malarial infection.^[82] However, Timmann and Meyer have argued that sickle cell anemia better fits the pathologies exhibited by the king,^[83] a suggestion the Egyptian team has called «interesting and plausible».^[84]

Murder by a blow to the head was theorised as a result of the 1968 x-ray which showed two bone fragments inside the skull.^[85] This theory was disproved by further analysis of the x-rays and the CT scan. The inter-cranial bone fragments were determined to be the result of the modern unwrapping of the mummy as they are loose and not adherent to the embalming resin.^[86] No evidence of bone thinning or calcified membranes, which could be indicative of a fatal blow to the head, were found.^[87] It has also been suggested that the young king was killed in a chariot accident due to a pattern of crushing injuries, including the fact that the front part of his chest wall and ribs are missing.^[88][89] However, the missing ribs are unlikely to be a result of an injury sustained at the time of death; photographs taken at the conclusion of Carter’s excavation in 1926 show that the chest wall of the king was intact, still wearing a beaded collar with falcon-headed terminals. The absence of both the collar and chest wall was noted in the 1968 x-ray^[90] and further confirmed by the CT scan.^[70] It is likely that the front part of his chest was removed by robbers during the theft of the beaded collar; the intricate beaded skullcap the king was pictured wearing in 1926 was also missing by 1968.^[91]

Tomb

Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, causing his mummy to be buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial.^[92] His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, these robberies likely took place within several months at most of the initial burial. The location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by debris from subsequent tombs, and workers’ houses were built over the tomb entrance.^[93]

Rediscovery

The concession rights for excavating the Valley of the Kings was held by Theodore Davis from 1905 until 1914. In that time, he had unearthed ten tombs including the nearly intact but non-royal tomb of Queen Tiye’s parents, Yuya and Thuya. As he continued working there in the later years, he uncovered nothing of major significance.^[94] Davis did find several objects in KV58 referring to Tutankhamun, which included knobs and handles bearing his name most significantly the embalming cache of the king (KV54). He believed this to be the pharaoh’s lost tomb and published his findings as such with the line; «I fear the Valley of the Tombs is exhausted».^[95][96] In 1907, Howard Carter was invited by William Garstin and Gaston Maspero to excavate for George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon in the Valley. The Earl of Carnarvon and Carter had hoped this would lead to their gaining the concession when Davis gave it up but had to be satisfied with excavations in different parts of the Theban Necropolis for seven more years.^[97]

After a systematic search beginning in 1915, Carter discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922.^[98] An ancient stroke of luck allowed the tomb to survive to modern times. The tomb’s entrance was buried by mounds of debris from the cutting of KV9 over 150 years after Tutankhamun’s burial; ancient workmen’s huts were also built on the site.^[99][100] This area remained unexcavated until 1922 due to its proximity to KV9, as excavations would impede tourist access to that tomb.^[101] Carter commenced excavations in early November 1922, before the height of the tourist season.^[102] The first step of the tomb’s entrance staircase was uncovered on 4 November 1922. According to Carter’s account the workmen discovered the step while digging beneath the remains of the huts; other accounts attribute the discovery to a boy digging outside the assigned work area.^[103][i]

By February 1923 the antechamber had been cleared of everything but two sentinel statues. A day and time were selected to unseal the tomb with about twenty appointed witnesses that included Lord Carnarvon, several Egyptian officials, museum representatives and the staff of the Government Press Bureau. On 17 February 1923 at just after two o’clock, the seal was broken.^[107]

Contents

There were 5,398 items found in the tomb, including a solid gold coffin, face mask, thrones, archery bows, trumpets, a lotus chalice, two Imiut fetishes, gold toe stalls, furniture, food, wine, sandals, and fresh linen underwear. Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items.^[108] Recent analysis suggests a dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from a meteorite; study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies around the Mediterranean at the time.^[109][110] Many of Tutankhamun’s burial goods show signs of being adapted for his use after being originally made for earlier owners, probably Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten or both.^{[111][112][113]}

On 4 November 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter’s discovery, Tutankhamun’s mummy was placed on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.^[114] In 2009, the tomb was closed for restoration by the Ministry of antiquities and the Getty Conservation Institute. While the closure was originally planned for five years to restore the walls affected by humidity, the Egyptian revolution of 2011 set the project back. The tomb re-opened in February 2019.^[115]

Rumored curse

For many years, rumors of a «curse of the pharaohs» (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery^[116]) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb. The most prominent was George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, who died on 5 April 1923, five months after the discovery of the first step leading down to the tomb on 4 November 1922.^[117]

The cause of Carnarvon’s death was pneumonia supervening on [facial] erysipelas (a streptococcal infection of the skin and underlying soft tissue).^[118] The Earl had been in an automobile accident in 1901 making him very unhealthy and frail. His doctor recommended a warmer climate so in 1903 the Carnarvons traveled to Egypt where the Earl became interested in Egyptology.^[117] Along with the stresses of the excavation, Carnarvon was already in a weakened state when an infection led to pneumonia.^[119]

A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb and sarcophagus were opened, only eight died within a dozen years;^[120] Howard Carter died of lymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64.^[121] The last survivors included Lady Evelyn Herbert, Lord Carnarvon’s daughter who was among the first people to enter the tomb after its discovery in November 1922, who lived for a further 57 years and died in 1980,^[122] and American archaeologist J.O. Kinnaman who died in 1961, 39 years after the event.^[123]

Legacy

Tutankhamun’s fame is primarily the result of his well-preserved tomb and the global exhibitions of his associated artifacts. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter’s The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, «The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt’s Pharaohs has become in death the most renowned».^[124]

The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism, «King Tut». Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was «Old King Tut» by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923,^[125][126] which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare^[127] and Sophie Tucker.^[125] «King Tut» became the name of products, businesses, and the pet dog of U.S. President Herbert Hoover.^[128] While The Treasures of Tutankhamun exhibit was touring the United States in 1978, comedian Steve Martin wrote a novelty song King Tut. Originally performed on Saturday Night Live, the song was released as a single and sold over a million copies.^[129]

International exhibitions

Tutankhamun’s artifacts have traveled the world with unprecedented visitorship.^[131] The exhibitions began in 1962 when Algeria won its independence from France. With the ending of that conflict, the Louvre Museum in Paris was quickly able to arrange an exhibition of Tutankhamun’s treasures through Christiane Desroches Noblecourt. The French Egyptologist was already in Egypt as part of a UNESCO appointment. The French exhibit drew 1.2 million visitors. Noblecourt had also convinced the Egyptian Minister of Culture to allow British photographer George Rainbird to re-photograph the collection in color. The new color photos as well as the Louvre exhibition began a Tutankhamun revival.^[132]

In 1965, the Tutankhamun exhibit traveled to Tokyo National Museum in Tokyo, Japan (21 August–10 October)^[133] where it garnered more visitors than the future New York exhibit in 1979. The exhibit next moved to the Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art in Kyoto (15 October–28 November)^[133] with almost 1.75 million visitors, and then to the Fukuoka Prefectural Cultural Hall in Fukuoka (3 December–26 December).^[133] The blockbuster attraction exceeded all other exhibitions of Tutankhamun’s treasures for the next 60 years.^[131][134] The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition.^[131][135] The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979. More than eight million attended.^[136][137]

In 2005, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects, this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. It featured the same exhibits as Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format. It was expected to draw more than three million people but exceeded that with almost four million people attending just the first four tour stops.^[138] The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Chicago, Philadelphia and London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of Art.^[139] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, followed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.^[140]

The exhibition visited Australia for the first time, opening at the Melbourne Museum for its only Australian stop before Egypt’s treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011.^[141]

The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun’s immediate predecessors in the 18th Dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun’s burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun’s tomb. The exhibition did not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has decided that damage which occurred to previous artifacts on tours precludes this one from joining them.^[142]

In 2018, it was announced that the largest collection of Tutankhamun artifacts, amounting to forty percent of the entire collection, would be leaving Egypt again in 2019 for an international tour entitled; «King Tut: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh».^[143] The 2019–2022 tour began with an exhibit called; «Tutankhamun, Pharaoh’s Treasures,» which launched in Los Angeles and then traveled to Paris. The exhibit featured at the Grande Halle de la Villette in Paris ran from March to September 2019. The exhibit featured one hundred and fifty gold coins, along with various pieces of jewelry, sculpture and carvings, as well as the renowned gold mask of Tutankhamun. Promotion of the exhibit filled the streets of Paris with posters of the event. The exhibit moved to London in November 2019 and was scheduled to travel to Boston and Sydney when the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted the tour. On 28 August 2020 the artifacts that made up the temporary exhibition returned to the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and other institutions.^[144] The treasures will be permanently housed in the new Grand Egyptian Museum in Cairo, expected to open in November 2022.^[145][146]

Ancestry

v t e Tutankhamun ascending family history

Based on genetic testing and archeological evidence Thutmose IV (m) Mutemwiya (f) Tjuyu (f)[i] Yuya (m)[i] Amenhotep III (m)[i] Tiye (f)[i] Body identified as KV35EL Nefertiti (f) Akhenaten (m)[i] Body identified in KV55 The Younger Lady (f)[i] Body identified as KV35YL Possibly Nebetah or Beketaten Ankhesenamun (f) Body believed to be KV21A Tutankhamun (m)[i] Child 1 (f) Child 2 (f) Explanatory notes and reference sources Notes: ^ a b c d e f g Cooney — Jasno — pp. 219 — 220 «DNA indicated a probability in excess of 99.99%» that Amenhotep III was the father of the man interred in KV55. The probability that the man interred in KV55 is the father of Tutankhamun was equally as great.» «[T]he lock of hair found in Tutankhamun’s tomb seemed to link him in some intimate way to KV35EL». «Tiye’s parents, Yuya and Thuya, had been found..» «..genetic analysis confirmed KV35EL as their daughter.» «Furthermore, and as anticipated, the KV55 mummy genetically matched as the offspring of KV35EL.» «Perhaps the most curious results of the genetic fingerprinting came from KV35YL. She proved to be not only a daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye but also the mother of Tutankhamun.»[α] ^ Cooney, Kathlyn M.; Jasnow, Richard (25 August 2015). Joyful in Thebes: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Betsy M. Bryan. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-41-3.

See also

• Anubis Shrine
• Head of Nefertem
• Tutankhamun’s mummy
• Tutankhamun’s meteoric iron dagger
• Tutankhamun’s trumpets

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

• Grim secrets of Pharaoh’s city—BBC News
• Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs website
• British Museum Tutankhamun highlight
• «Swiss geneticists examine Tutankhamun’s genetic profile» by Reuters
• Ultimate Tut Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead

Tutankhamun
Tutankhaten, Tutankhamen[1]
Tutankhamun’s golden mask
Pharaoh
Reign	c. 1332 – 1323 BC, New Kingdom (18th Dynasty)
Predecessor	Neferneferuaten
Successor	Ay (granduncle/grandfather-in-law)
Royal titulary
Consort	Ankhesenamun (half-sister)
Children	2 (317a and 317b)
Father	KV55 mummy,[5] identified as most likely Akhenaten
Mother	The Younger Lady
Born	c. 1341 BC
Died	c. 1323 BC (aged 18–19)
Burial	KV62

Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen^[a] ( ;^[6] Ancient Egyptian: twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn; c. 1341 BC – 1323 BC), also referred to as King Tut, was an Egyptian pharaoh. Having ruled over the New Kingdom of Egypt, he was the last of his royal family to exercise governance during the Eighteenth Dynasty, with his reign lasting from c. 1332 BC until c. 1323 BC in the conventional Egyptian chronology. Through DNA testing, his father was identified as the mummy within tomb KV55 and his mother was identified as a mummy from tomb KV35, with his mother having been his father’s sister. The mummy of Tutankhamun’s father is speculated to be of the pharaoh Akhenaten, though this is disputed; the mummy of Tutankhamun’s mother is informally called «The Younger Lady» but is otherwise unknown.^[7]

Tutankhamun took the throne at eight or nine years of age, under the unprecedented viziership of his eventual successor, Ay, to whom he may have been related. Within tomb KV21, the mummy KV21A was identified as having been the biological mother of Tutankhamun’s two daughters — it is therefore speculated that this mummy is of his only known wife, Ankhesenamun, who was his paternal half-sister. Their two daughters were identified as the 317a and 317b mummies; daughter 317a was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy while daughter 317b was born at full-term, though both died in infancy.^[8] His names — Tutankhaten and Tutankhamun — are thought to have meant «living image of Aten» and «living image of Amun» in the ancient Egyptian language, with the god Aten having been replaced by the god Amun after Akhenaten’s death. Some Egyptologists, including Battiscombe Gunn, have claimed that the translation may be incorrect, instead being closer to «the-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing» or «one-perfect-of-life-is-Aten» (latter translation by Gerhard Fecht [de]).

Tutankhamun restored the ancient Egyptian religion against Akhenaten’s Atenism and also relocated Egypt’s capital back to Thebes, undoing Akhenaten’s earlier relocation of the capital to Amarna. He also enriched and endowed the priestly orders of two important cults, initiated a restoration process for old monuments that were damaged during the Amarna Period, and reburied his father’s remains in the Valley of the Kings. Tutankhamun suffered from a deformed left foot and bone necrosis, which rendered him physically disabled and dependent on assistive canes. He also had other health issues, including scoliosis, and had contracted several strains of malaria.

In 1922, a team led by British Egyptologist Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings excavated Tutankhamun’s tomb, in an effort that was funded by British aristocrat George Herbert.^[9] The discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb received worldwide press coverage; with over 5,000 artifacts, it gave rise to renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun’s mask, now preserved at the Egyptian Museum, remains a popular symbol. The deaths of some individuals who were involved in the unearthing of Tutankhamun’s mummy have been popularly attributed to the «curse of the pharaohs» due to the similarity of their circumstances. Some of his treasure has traveled worldwide with unprecedented response; the Egyptian government allowed tours beginning in 1961. Tutankhamun has, since the discovery of his intact tomb, been referred to as «King Tut» in colloquial terms.^[10]

Family

Tutankhamun, whose original name was Tutankhaten or Tutankhuaten, was born during the reign of Akhenaten, during the late Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.^[11] Akhenaten’s reign was characterized by a dramatic shift in ancient Egyptian religion, known as Atenism, and the relocation of the capital to the site of Amarna, which gave its name to the modern term for this era, the Amarna Period.^[12] Toward the end of the Amarna Period, two other pharaohs appear in the record who were apparently Akhenaten’s co-regents: Neferneferuaten, a female ruler who may have been Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti or his daughter Meritaten; and Smenkhkare, whom some Egyptologists believe was the same person as Neferneferuaten but most regard as a distinct figure.^[13] It is uncertain whether Smenkhkare’s reign outlasted Akhenaten’s, whereas Neferneferuaten is now thought to have become co-regent shortly before Akhenaten’s death and to have reigned for some time after it.^[14]

An inscription from Hermopolis refers to «Tutankhuaten» as a «king’s son», and he is generally thought to have been the son of Akhenaten,^[15] although some suggest instead that Smenkhkare was his father.^[16] Inscriptions from Tutankhamun’s reign treat him as a son of Akhenaten’s father, Amenhotep III, but that is only possible if Akhenaten’s 17-year reign included a long co-regency with his father,^[17] a possibility that many Egyptologists once supported but is now being abandoned.^[18]

While some suggestions have been made that Tutankhamun’s mother was Meketaten, the second daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, based on a relief from the Royal Tomb at Amarna,^[b] this possibility has been deemed unlikely given that she was about 10 years old at the time of her death.^[20] Another interpretation of the relief names Nefertiti as his mother.^[c][22] Meritaten has also been put forward as his mother based on a re-examination of a box lid and coronation tunic found in his tomb.^[23] Tutankhamun was wet nursed by a woman named Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.^[24][25]

In 2008, genetic analysis was carried out on the mummified remains of Tutankhamun and others thought or known to be New Kingdom royalty by a team from University of Cairo. The results indicated that his father was the mummy from tomb KV55, identified as Akhenaten, and that his mother was the mummy from tomb KV35, known as the «Younger Lady», who was found to be a full sister of her husband.^[26] The team reported it was over 99.99 percent certain that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.^[27] More recent genetic analysis, published in 2020, revealed Tutankhamun had the haplogroups YDNA R1b, which originated in Europe and which today makes up 50–90% of the genetic pool of modern western Europeans, and mtDNA K, which originated in the Near East. He shares this Y-haplogroup with his father, the KV55 mummy (Akhenaten), and grandfather, Amenhotep III, and his mtDNA haplogroup with his mother, The Younger Lady, his grandmother, Tiye, and his great-grandmother, Thuya, upholding the results of the earlier genetic study. The profiles for Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III were incomplete and the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results. Because the relationships of these two mummies with the KV55 mummy had previously been confirmed in an earlier study, the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the KV55 data.^[28]

The identity of The Younger Lady is unknown but she cannot be Nefertiti, as she was not known to be a sister of Akhenaten.^[29] However, researchers such as Marc Gabolde and Aidan Dodson claim that Nefertiti was indeed Tutankhamun’s mother. In this interpretation of the DNA results, the genetic closeness is not due to a brother-sister pairing but the result of three generations of first-cousin marriage, making Nefertiti a first cousin of Akhenaten.^[30] The validity and reliability of the genetic data from mummified remains has been questioned due to possible degradation due to decay.^[31]

When Tutankhaten became king, he married Ankhesenpaaten, one of Akhenaten’s daughters, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun.^[32] They had two daughters, neither of whom survived infancy.^[26] While only an incomplete genetic profile was obtained from the two mummified foetuses, it was enough to confirm that Tutankhamun was their father.^[26] Likewise, only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained so far. KV21A has been suggested as the mother of the foetuses but the data is not statistically significant enough to allow her to be securely identified as Ankhesenamun.^[26] Computed tomography studies published in 2011 revealed that one daughter was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at full-term, 9 months.^[8] Tutankhamun’s death marked the end of the royal line of the 18th Dynasty.^[33]

Reign

Tutankhamun was between eight and nine years of age when he ascended the throne and became pharaoh,^[36] taking the throne name Nebkheperure.^[37] He reigned for about nine years.^[38] During Tutankhamun’s reign the position of Vizier had been split between Upper and Lower Egypt. The principal vizier for Upper Egypt was Usermontu. Another figure named Pentju was also vizier but it is unclear of which lands. It is not entirely known if Ay, Tutankhamun’s successor, actually held this position. A gold foil fragment from KV58 seems to indicate, but not certainly, that Ay was referred to as a Priest of Maat along with an epithet of «vizier, doer of maat.» The epithet does not fit the usual description used by the regular vizier but might indicate an informal title. It might be that Ay used the title of vizier in an unprecedented manner.^[39]

An Egyptian priest named Manetho wrote a comprehensive history of ancient Egypt where he refers to a king named Orus, who ruled for 36 years and had a daughter named Acencheres who reigned twelve years and her brother Rathotis who ruled for only nine years.^[40][41] The Amarna rulers are central in the list but which name corresponds with which historic figure is not agreed upon by researchers. Orus and Acencheres have been identified with Horemheb and Akhenaten and Rathotis with Tutankhamun. The names are also associated with Smenkhkare, Amenhotep III, Ay and the others in differing order.^[42]

Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime.^[43] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.^[44]

In order for the pharaoh, who held divine office, to be linked to the people and the gods, special epithets were created for them at their accession to the throne. The ancient Egyptian titulary also served to demonstrate one’s qualities and link them to the terrestrial realm. The five names were developed over the centuries beginning with the Horus name.^[d][45][46] Tutankhamun’s^[e] original nomen, Tutankhaten,^[47] did not have a Nebty name^[f] or a Gold Falcon name^[g] associated with it^[48] as nothing has been found with the full five-name protocol.^[h] Tutankhaten was believed to mean «Living-image-of-Aten» as far back as 1877; however, not all Egyptologists agree with this interpretation. English Egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn believed that the older interpretation did not fit with Akhenaten’s theology. Gunn believed that such an name would have been blasphemous. He saw tut as a verb and not a noun and gave his translation in 1926 as The-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing. Professor Gerhard Fecht also believed the word tut was a verb. He noted that Akhenaten used tit as a word for ‘image’, not tut. Fecht translated the verb tut as «To be perfect/complete». Using Aten as the subject, Fecht’s full translation was «One-perfect-of-life-is-Aten». The Hermopolis Block (two carved block fragments discovered in Ashmunein) has a unique spelling of the first nomen written as Tutankhuaten; it uses ankh as a verb, which does support the older translation of Living-image-of-Aten.^[48]

End of Amarna period

Once crowned and after «taking counsel» with the god Amun, Tutankhamun made several endowments that enriched and added to the priestly numbers of the cults of Amun and Ptah. He commissioned new statues of the deities from the best metals and stone and had new processional barques made of the finest cedar from Lebanon and had them embellished with gold and silver. The priests and all of the attending dancers, singers and attendants had their positions restored and a decree of royal protection granted to insure their future stability.^[49]

Tutankhamun’s second year as pharaoh began the return to the old Egyptian order. Both he and his queen removed ‘Aten’ from their names, replacing it with Amun and moved the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. He renounced the god Aten, relegating it to obscurity and returned Egyptian religion to its polytheistic form. His first act as a pharaoh was to remove his father’s mummy from his tomb at Akhetaten and rebury it in the Valley of the Kings. This helped strengthen his reign. Tutankhamun rebuilt the stelae, shrines, and buildings at Karnak. He added works to Luxor as well as beginning the restoration of other temples throughout Egypt that were pillaged by Akhenaten.^[50]

Campaigns, monuments, and construction

The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armor, folding stools appropriate for military campaigns, and bows, and he was trained in archery.^[51] However, given his youth and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, most historians speculate that he did not personally take part in these battles.^[7][52]

Given his age, the king probably had advisers which presumably included Ay (who succeeded Tutankhamun) and General Horemheb, Ay’s possible son in law and successor. Horemheb records that the king appointed him «lord of the land» as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.^[52]

In his third regnal year Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father’s reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten was abandoned.^[53] As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, where he laid out the sphinx avenue leading to the temple of Mut. The sphinxes were originally made for Akhenaten and Nefertiti; they were given new ram heads and small statues of the king.^[54] At Luxor temple he completed the decoration of the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III.^[55] Monuments defaced under Akhenaten were restored, and new cult images of the god Amun were created. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet, and Opet. His Restoration Stela erected in front of Karnak temple says:

The temples of the gods and goddesses … were in ruins. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown. Their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads … the gods turned their backs upon this land … If anyone made a prayer to a god for advice he would never respond.^[56]

A building called the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-Beloved-of-Amun-Who-Puts-Thebes-in-Order, which may be identical to a building called Temple-of-Nebkheperre-in-Thebes, a possible mortuary temple, used recycled talatat from Akhenaten’s east Karnak Aten temples indicating that the dismantling of these temples was already underway.^[57] Many of Tutankhamun’s construction projects were uncompleted at the time of his death and were completed by or usurped by his successors, especially Horemheb. The sphinx avenue was completed by his successor Ay and the whole was usurped by Horemheb. The Restoration Stele was usurped by Horemheb; pieces of the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-in-Thebes were recycled into Horemheb’s own building projects.^[58]

Health and death

Tutankhamun was slight of build, and roughly 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) tall.^[59][60] He had large front incisors and an overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged.^[61] Analysis of the clothing found in his tomb, particularly the dimensions of his loincloths and belts indicates that he had a narrow waist and rounded hips.^[62] In attempts to explain both his unusual depiction in art and his early death it has been theorised that Tutankhamun had gynecomastia,^[63] Marfan syndrome, Wilson–Turner X-linked intellectual disability syndrome, Fröhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy), Klinefelter syndrome,^[64] androgen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, Antley–Bixler syndrome or one of its variants.^[65] It has also been suggested that he had inherited temporal lobe epilepsy in a bid to explain the religiosity of his great-grandfather Thutmose IV and father Akhenaten and their early deaths.^[66] However, caution has been urged in this diagnosis.^[67]

In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom Pharaoh’s crania and skeletal remains, which included the mummified remains of Tutankhamun. The authors determined that the royal mummies of the 18th Dynasty bore strong similarities to contemporary Nubians with slight differences.^[68]

In January 2005 Tutankhamun’s mummy was CT scanned. The results showed that the young king had a partially cleft hard palate and possibly a mild case of scoliosis.^[69][70] Additionally, he was diagnosed with a flat right foot with hypophalangism, while his left foot was clubbed and had bone necrosis of the second and third metatarsals (Freiberg disease or Köhler disease II).^[71] However, the clubfoot diagnosis is disputed.^[72] James Gamble instead suggests that the position is a result of Tutankhamun habitually walking on the outside of his foot due to the pain caused by Köhler disease II;^[73] this theory has been refuted by members of Hawass’ team.^[74] The condition may have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of a cane, many of which were found in his tomb.^[26] Genetic testing through STR analysis rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley–Bixler syndrome) or Marfan syndrome.^[7] Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun’s.^[7] This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the ailment.^[75] The team discovered DNA from several strains of the parasite, indicating that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. His malaria infections may have caused a fatal immune response in the body or triggered circulatory shock.^[76] The CT scan also showed that he had experienced a compound left leg fracture. This injury being the result of modern damage was ruled out based on the ragged edges of the fracture; modern damage features sharp edges. Embalming substances were present within the fracture indicating that it was associated with an open wound; no signs of healing were present.^[77]

A facial reconstruction of Tutankhamun was carried out in 2005 by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities and National Geographic. Three separate teams—Egyptian, French, and American—worked separately to approximate the face of the boy king. While the Egyptian and French teams knew their subject was Tutankhamun, the American team worked blind. All teams produced very similar results, but it was that of the French team that was ultimately cast in silicone.^[78][79]

Stuart Tyson Smith, Egyptologist and professor of anthropology at University of California, Santa Barbara, in 2008 expressed criticism of the forensic reconstruction in a journal review. He noted that “Tutankhamun’s face” was depicted as “very light-skinned” which reflected a “bias” among media outlets. Smith further added that “Egyptologists have been strangely reluctant to admit that the ancient Egyptians were rather dark-skinned Africans, especially the farther south one goes”.^[80]

Cause of death

There are no surviving records of the circumstances of Tutankhamun’s death; it has been the subject of considerable debate and major studies.^[81]
Hawass and his team postulate that his death was likely the result of the combination of his multiple weakening disorders, a leg fracture, perhaps as the result of a fall, and a severe malarial infection.^[82] However, Timmann and Meyer have argued that sickle cell anemia better fits the pathologies exhibited by the king,^[83] a suggestion the Egyptian team has called «interesting and plausible».^[84]

Murder by a blow to the head was theorised as a result of the 1968 x-ray which showed two bone fragments inside the skull.^[85] This theory was disproved by further analysis of the x-rays and the CT scan. The inter-cranial bone fragments were determined to be the result of the modern unwrapping of the mummy as they are loose and not adherent to the embalming resin.^[86] No evidence of bone thinning or calcified membranes, which could be indicative of a fatal blow to the head, were found.^[87] It has also been suggested that the young king was killed in a chariot accident due to a pattern of crushing injuries, including the fact that the front part of his chest wall and ribs are missing.^[88][89] However, the missing ribs are unlikely to be a result of an injury sustained at the time of death; photographs taken at the conclusion of Carter’s excavation in 1926 show that the chest wall of the king was intact, still wearing a beaded collar with falcon-headed terminals. The absence of both the collar and chest wall was noted in the 1968 x-ray^[90] and further confirmed by the CT scan.^[70] It is likely that the front part of his chest was removed by robbers during the theft of the beaded collar; the intricate beaded skullcap the king was pictured wearing in 1926 was also missing by 1968.^[91]

Tomb

Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, causing his mummy to be buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial.^[92] His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, these robberies likely took place within several months at most of the initial burial. The location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by debris from subsequent tombs, and workers’ houses were built over the tomb entrance.^[93]

Rediscovery

The concession rights for excavating the Valley of the Kings was held by Theodore Davis from 1905 until 1914. In that time, he had unearthed ten tombs including the nearly intact but non-royal tomb of Queen Tiye’s parents, Yuya and Thuya. As he continued working there in the later years, he uncovered nothing of major significance.^[94] Davis did find several objects in KV58 referring to Tutankhamun, which included knobs and handles bearing his name most significantly the embalming cache of the king (KV54). He believed this to be the pharaoh’s lost tomb and published his findings as such with the line; «I fear the Valley of the Tombs is exhausted».^[95][96] In 1907, Howard Carter was invited by William Garstin and Gaston Maspero to excavate for George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon in the Valley. The Earl of Carnarvon and Carter had hoped this would lead to their gaining the concession when Davis gave it up but had to be satisfied with excavations in different parts of the Theban Necropolis for seven more years.^[97]

After a systematic search beginning in 1915, Carter discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922.^[98] An ancient stroke of luck allowed the tomb to survive to modern times. The tomb’s entrance was buried by mounds of debris from the cutting of KV9 over 150 years after Tutankhamun’s burial; ancient workmen’s huts were also built on the site.^[99][100] This area remained unexcavated until 1922 due to its proximity to KV9, as excavations would impede tourist access to that tomb.^[101] Carter commenced excavations in early November 1922, before the height of the tourist season.^[102] The first step of the tomb’s entrance staircase was uncovered on 4 November 1922. According to Carter’s account the workmen discovered the step while digging beneath the remains of the huts; other accounts attribute the discovery to a boy digging outside the assigned work area.^[103][i]

By February 1923 the antechamber had been cleared of everything but two sentinel statues. A day and time were selected to unseal the tomb with about twenty appointed witnesses that included Lord Carnarvon, several Egyptian officials, museum representatives and the staff of the Government Press Bureau. On 17 February 1923 at just after two o’clock, the seal was broken.^[107]

Contents

There were 5,398 items found in the tomb, including a solid gold coffin, face mask, thrones, archery bows, trumpets, a lotus chalice, two Imiut fetishes, gold toe stalls, furniture, food, wine, sandals, and fresh linen underwear. Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items.^[108] Recent analysis suggests a dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from a meteorite; study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies around the Mediterranean at the time.^[109][110] Many of Tutankhamun’s burial goods show signs of being adapted for his use after being originally made for earlier owners, probably Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten or both.^{[111][112][113]}

On 4 November 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter’s discovery, Tutankhamun’s mummy was placed on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.^[114] In 2009, the tomb was closed for restoration by the Ministry of antiquities and the Getty Conservation Institute. While the closure was originally planned for five years to restore the walls affected by humidity, the Egyptian revolution of 2011 set the project back. The tomb re-opened in February 2019.^[115]

Rumored curse

For many years, rumors of a «curse of the pharaohs» (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery^[116]) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb. The most prominent was George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, who died on 5 April 1923, five months after the discovery of the first step leading down to the tomb on 4 November 1922.^[117]

The cause of Carnarvon’s death was pneumonia supervening on [facial] erysipelas (a streptococcal infection of the skin and underlying soft tissue).^[118] The Earl had been in an automobile accident in 1901 making him very unhealthy and frail. His doctor recommended a warmer climate so in 1903 the Carnarvons traveled to Egypt where the Earl became interested in Egyptology.^[117] Along with the stresses of the excavation, Carnarvon was already in a weakened state when an infection led to pneumonia.^[119]

A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb and sarcophagus were opened, only eight died within a dozen years;^[120] Howard Carter died of lymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64.^[121] The last survivors included Lady Evelyn Herbert, Lord Carnarvon’s daughter who was among the first people to enter the tomb after its discovery in November 1922, who lived for a further 57 years and died in 1980,^[122] and American archaeologist J.O. Kinnaman who died in 1961, 39 years after the event.^[123]

Legacy

Tutankhamun’s fame is primarily the result of his well-preserved tomb and the global exhibitions of his associated artifacts. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter’s The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, «The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt’s Pharaohs has become in death the most renowned».^[124]

The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism, «King Tut». Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was «Old King Tut» by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923,^[125][126] which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare^[127] and Sophie Tucker.^[125] «King Tut» became the name of products, businesses, and the pet dog of U.S. President Herbert Hoover.^[128] While The Treasures of Tutankhamun exhibit was touring the United States in 1978, comedian Steve Martin wrote a novelty song King Tut. Originally performed on Saturday Night Live, the song was released as a single and sold over a million copies.^[129]

International exhibitions

Tutankhamun’s artifacts have traveled the world with unprecedented visitorship.^[131] The exhibitions began in 1962 when Algeria won its independence from France. With the ending of that conflict, the Louvre Museum in Paris was quickly able to arrange an exhibition of Tutankhamun’s treasures through Christiane Desroches Noblecourt. The French Egyptologist was already in Egypt as part of a UNESCO appointment. The French exhibit drew 1.2 million visitors. Noblecourt had also convinced the Egyptian Minister of Culture to allow British photographer George Rainbird to re-photograph the collection in color. The new color photos as well as the Louvre exhibition began a Tutankhamun revival.^[132]

In 1965, the Tutankhamun exhibit traveled to Tokyo National Museum in Tokyo, Japan (21 August–10 October)^[133] where it garnered more visitors than the future New York exhibit in 1979. The exhibit next moved to the Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art in Kyoto (15 October–28 November)^[133] with almost 1.75 million visitors, and then to the Fukuoka Prefectural Cultural Hall in Fukuoka (3 December–26 December).^[133] The blockbuster attraction exceeded all other exhibitions of Tutankhamun’s treasures for the next 60 years.^[131][134] The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition.^[131][135] The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979. More than eight million attended.^[136][137]

In 2005, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects, this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. It featured the same exhibits as Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format. It was expected to draw more than three million people but exceeded that with almost four million people attending just the first four tour stops.^[138] The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Chicago, Philadelphia and London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of Art.^[139] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, followed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.^[140]

The exhibition visited Australia for the first time, opening at the Melbourne Museum for its only Australian stop before Egypt’s treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011.^[141]

The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun’s immediate predecessors in the 18th Dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun’s burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun’s tomb. The exhibition did not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has decided that damage which occurred to previous artifacts on tours precludes this one from joining them.^[142]

In 2018, it was announced that the largest collection of Tutankhamun artifacts, amounting to forty percent of the entire collection, would be leaving Egypt again in 2019 for an international tour entitled; «King Tut: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh».^[143] The 2019–2022 tour began with an exhibit called; «Tutankhamun, Pharaoh’s Treasures,» which launched in Los Angeles and then traveled to Paris. The exhibit featured at the Grande Halle de la Villette in Paris ran from March to September 2019. The exhibit featured one hundred and fifty gold coins, along with various pieces of jewelry, sculpture and carvings, as well as the renowned gold mask of Tutankhamun. Promotion of the exhibit filled the streets of Paris with posters of the event. The exhibit moved to London in November 2019 and was scheduled to travel to Boston and Sydney when the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted the tour. On 28 August 2020 the artifacts that made up the temporary exhibition returned to the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and other institutions.^[144] The treasures will be permanently housed in the new Grand Egyptian Museum in Cairo, expected to open in November 2022.^[145][146]

Ancestry

v t e Tutankhamun ascending family history

Based on genetic testing and archeological evidence Thutmose IV (m) Mutemwiya (f) Tjuyu (f)[i] Yuya (m)[i] Amenhotep III (m)[i] Tiye (f)[i] Body identified as KV35EL Nefertiti (f) Akhenaten (m)[i] Body identified in KV55 The Younger Lady (f)[i] Body identified as KV35YL Possibly Nebetah or Beketaten Ankhesenamun (f) Body believed to be KV21A Tutankhamun (m)[i] Child 1 (f) Child 2 (f) Explanatory notes and reference sources Notes: ^ a b c d e f g Cooney — Jasno — pp. 219 — 220 «DNA indicated a probability in excess of 99.99%» that Amenhotep III was the father of the man interred in KV55. The probability that the man interred in KV55 is the father of Tutankhamun was equally as great.» «[T]he lock of hair found in Tutankhamun’s tomb seemed to link him in some intimate way to KV35EL». «Tiye’s parents, Yuya and Thuya, had been found..» «..genetic analysis confirmed KV35EL as their daughter.» «Furthermore, and as anticipated, the KV55 mummy genetically matched as the offspring of KV35EL.» «Perhaps the most curious results of the genetic fingerprinting came from KV35YL. She proved to be not only a daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye but also the mother of Tutankhamun.»[α] ^ Cooney, Kathlyn M.; Jasnow, Richard (25 August 2015). Joyful in Thebes: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Betsy M. Bryan. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-41-3.

See also

• Anubis Shrine
• Head of Nefertem
• Tutankhamun’s mummy
• Tutankhamun’s meteoric iron dagger
• Tutankhamun’s trumpets

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

• Grim secrets of Pharaoh’s city—BBC News
• Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs website
• British Museum Tutankhamun highlight
• «Swiss geneticists examine Tutankhamun’s genetic profile» by Reuters
• Ultimate Tut Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead

Тутанхамон

Синонимы:

А Б В Г Д Е Ж З И Й К Л М Н О П Р С Т У Ф Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Э Ю Я

Тутанхамо́н, -а

Рядом по алфавиту:

ту́скнувший
ту́скнуть , -нет; прош. ту́скнул, ту́скла
тусна́к , -а
тусова́ться , тусу́юсь, тусу́ется (сниж.)
тусо́вка , -и, р. мн. -вок (сниж.)
тусо́вочка , -и, р. мн. -чек
тусо́вочный
тусо́вщик , -а (сниж.)
тусо́вщица , -ы, тв. -ей (сниж.)
туссо́р , -а (шёлк)
тусте́п , -а (танец)
тут , нареч.
тут , -а и ту́та¹, -ы (тутовник)
ту́т же
ту́т как ту́т
ту́та , нареч. (сниж. к тут¹)
тута́к , -а
Тутанхамо́н , -а
ту́то́вник , -а
тутово́д , -а
тутово́дство , -а
тутово́дческий
ту́товый
ту́тор , -а, мн. -а́, -о́в и -ы, -ов
ту́тотка , нареч. (сниж. к тут¹)
ту́точка , и ту́точки (сниж. к тут¹)
ту́тошний , (сниж.)
ту́тси , нескл., мн., ед. м. и ж. (этническая группа)
ту́тти , неизм. и нескл., с. (муз.)
ту́тти ква́нти , нескл., мн.
ту́тти-фру́тти , нескл., с. и мн.

Слова русского языка,
поиск и разбор слов онлайн

• Слова русского языка
• Т
• Тутанхамон

Правильно слово пишется: Тутанхамон

Всего в слове 10 букв, 4 гласных, 6 согласных, 4 слога.
Гласные: у, а, а, о;
Согласные: т, т, н, х, м, н.

Номера букв в слове

Номера букв в слове «Тутанхамон» в прямом и обратном порядке:

• 10
  Т
  1
• 9
  у
  2
• 8
  т
  3
• 7
  а
  4
• 6
  н
  5
• 5
  х
  6
• 4
  а
  7
• 3
  м
  8
• 2
  о
  9
• 1
  н
  10

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Тутанхамо́н

Тутанхамо́н, -а

Источник: Орфографический
академический ресурс «Академос» Института русского языка им. В.В. Виноградова РАН (словарная база
2020)

Делаем Карту слов лучше вместе

Привет! Меня зовут Лампобот, я компьютерная программа, которая помогает делать
Карту слов. Я отлично
умею считать, но пока плохо понимаю, как устроен ваш мир. Помоги мне разобраться!

Спасибо! Я обязательно научусь отличать широко распространённые слова от узкоспециальных.

Насколько понятно значение слова винтёр (существительное):

Предложения со словом «тутанхамон&raquo

• Говорят, Тутанхамон хотел было их приструнить, да тут же скончался при весьма таинственных обстоятельствах, всего лишь неполных девятнадцати лет от роду…
• Не знаю уж, какой – Рамзес, Тутанхамон или какой другой, но он будто спустился сверху и завис в полуметре от пола.
• Заниматься с тобой сейчас я уже не буду, так что завтракай и беги в свой саркофаг, Тутанхамон виртуальный.
• (все предложения)

Смотрите также

• Говорят, Тутанхамон хотел было их приструнить, да тут же скончался при весьма таинственных обстоятельствах, всего лишь неполных девятнадцати лет от роду…

• Не знаю уж, какой – Рамзес, Тутанхамон или какой другой, но он будто спустился сверху и завис в полуметре от пола.

• Заниматься с тобой сейчас я уже не буду, так что завтракай и беги в свой саркофаг, Тутанхамон виртуальный.

• (все предложения)

×òî òàêîå «Òóòàíõàìîí»? Êàê ïðàâèëüíî ïèøåòñÿ äàííîå ñëîâî. Ïîíÿòèå è òðàêòîâêà.

Òóòàíõàìîí ÒÓÒÀÍÕÀÌÎÍ — åãèïåòñêèé ôàðàîí â 1351-1342 äî í. ý. èç XVIII äèíàñòèè. Ïðè íåì îòìåíåíû ðåëèãèîçíûå ðåôîðìû Àìåíõîòåïà IV — Ýõíàòîíà. Ãðîáíèöà Òóòàíõàìîíà, ðàñêîïàííàÿ Õ. Êàðòåðîì â 1922, ñîäåðæèò öåííûå ïàìÿòíèêè äðåâíååãèïåòñêîé êóëüòóðû.

Òóòàíõàìîí —
(áóêâàëüíî — æèâîé îáðàç Àìîíà; òðîííîå èìÿ — Íåáõåïðóðà)
        åãèïåòñêèé ôàðàîí ýïîõè Íîâîãî öà… Áîëüøàÿ Ñîâåòñêàÿ ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ

Òóòàíõàìîí — ÒÓÒÀÍÕÀÌÎÍ, åãèïåòñêèé ôàðàîí â 1351 — 1342 äî íàøåé ýðû èç XVIII äèíàñòèè. Ïðè íåì îòìåíåíû ðåëèãèî… Ñîâðåìåííàÿ ýíöèêëîïåäèÿ

Синонимы слова «ТУТАНХАМОН»:

ФАРАОН

Смотреть что такое ТУТАНХАМОН в других словарях:

Тутанхамон
Тутанхатен, Тутанхамон[1]
Тутанхамона золотая маска
фараон
Царствовать	c. 1334 — 1325 гг. До н.э., Новое Королевство (18-я династия )
Предшественник	Нефернеферуатен
Преемник	Ау (дедушка / дедушка)
Королевский титул Преномен (Преномен) Неб-хеперу-ре[2][3] Обладатель проявления Ре.[4] Без мужчин Тут-анкх-imen, heqa iunu shemau[2][4] Живой образ Амона, правителя Южного Гелиополиса.[4] Имя Хорус Ка нахт тут месут[2][3] Победоносный бык, (самый) образ (возрождения).[4] Имя Небти Нефер хепу, сегере тави[5][3] Совершенный из законов, успокоивший Обе Земли.[4] Золотой Гор Wetjes khau, sehetep netjeru[2][3] Возвышенный видимости, который удовлетворил богов.[4]
Консорт	Анхесенамун (сводная сестра)
Дети	Два мертворожденный дочери 317a и 317b
Отец	КВ55 мумия,[6] определены как наиболее вероятные Эхнатон
Мать	Младшая леди
Родившийся	c. 1342 г. до н.э.
Умер	c. 1325 г. до н.э. (18–19 лет)
Захоронение	KV62

Тутанхамон (, Древнеегипетский: twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn ), Египетское произношение Тутанхамон ()^[7] (c. 1342 — ок. 1325до н.э), был древнеегипетский фараон который был последним из его королевской семьи, правившим в конце 18-я династия (правил ок. 1334 — 1325 г. до н.э. в обычная хронология ) вовремя Новое Королевство из Египетская история. Его отец был фараоном Эхнатон, считается мумией, найденной в гробнице KV55. Его мать — сестра его отца, идентифицированная с помощью анализа ДНК как неизвестная мумия, именуемая «Младшая леди «кто был найден в KV35.^[8]

Тутанхамон вступил на трон в возрасте восьми или девяти лет под беспрецедентным визиром своего возможного преемника, Ау, с которым он мог быть связан. Он женился на своей сводной сестре Анхесенамун. Во время брака они потеряли две дочери один на 5–6 месяце беременности, а другой вскоре после доношенных родов.^[9] Его имя-Тутанхатен и Тутанхамон— считаются означающими «Живой образ Атона» и «Живой образ Амона», с Атон заменен на Амон после смерти Эхнатона. Небольшое количество египтологов, в том числе Баттискомб Ганн, полагают, что перевод может быть неправильным и ближе к «Жизнь Атона доставляет удовольствие» или, как полагает профессор Герхард Фехт, читается как «Совершенный из жизни». -ис-Атен «.

Тутанхамон восстановил Древнеегипетская религия после его роспуска отцом, обогатил и наделил священников двух важных культов и начал восстанавливать старые памятники, поврежденные во время предыдущего Амарнский период. Он перенес останки своего отца в Долина королей а также перенос столицы из Ахетатон к Фивы. Тутанхамон был инвалидом из-за деформации левой стопы и некроза костей, потребовавшего использования трости, некоторые из которых были найдены в его могиле. У него были другие проблемы со здоровьем, включая сколиоз и заразился несколькими видами малярия.

Открытие 1922 г. Говард Картер Тутанхамона почти неповрежденная гробница, в раскопках, финансируемых Лорд Карнарвон,^[10] получил освещение в мировой прессе. С более чем 5000 артефактов он вызвал новый интерес общественности к древний Египет, для которого Маска Тутанхамона, теперь в Египетский музей, остается популярным символом. Смерть нескольких причастных к открытию Мумия Тутанхамона были широко приписаны проклятие фараонов. С момента открытия его неповрежденной гробницы, в просторечии его называли «Король тут«.

Некоторые из его сокровищ разошлись по всему миру с беспрецедентным успехом. В Египетский Высший совет древностей разрешили туры, начиная с 1962 года с выставки в Лувре в Париже, а затем в Киотском муниципальном художественном музее в Токио, Япония. Экспонаты собрали миллионы посетителей. Экспозиция 1972–1979 гг. Демонстрировалась в США, Советском Союзе, Японии, Франции, Канаде и Западной Германии. До 2005–2011 гг. Снова не было международных выставок. На этой выставке были представлены предшественники Тутанхамона из 18-й династии, в том числе Хатшепсут и Эхнатона, но без золотой посмертной маски. Тур Treasures 2019–2022 начался в Лос-Анджелесе и завершится в 2022 году в новом Большой Египетский музей в Каире, где впервые будет представлена ​​полная коллекция Тутанхамона, собранная из всех музеев и кладовых Египта.

Семья

Тутанхамон был сыном Эхнатон (первоначально назывался Аменхотеп IV,^[11]), который считается мумией, найденной в гробнице KV55.^[12] Его мать — одна из сестер Эхнатона.^[6] При рождении его назвали Тутанхатен, имя, отражающее Атенист верования своего отца. Его кормилица была женщина по имени Майя, известный из ее могилы в Саккара.^[13][14][15]

Хотя были сделаны некоторые предположения, что мать Тутанхамона была Meketaten, (вторая дочь Эхнатона и Нефертити) на основе облегчения от Королевская гробница в Амарна,^[а] учитывая, что на момент смерти ей было около 10 лет, это было сочтено маловероятным.^[17] Другое толкование названий рельефов Нефертити как его мать.^[b][19]

В 2008 году генетический анализ был проведен на мумифицированных останках Тутанхамона и других людей, считающихся или известных как члены королевской семьи Нового Королевства командой из Каирский университет. Результаты показали, что его отец был KV55 мумия, идентифицированная как Эхнатон, и что его мать была KV35 Младшая леди, которая оказалась родной сестрой своего мужа.^[20] Это означает, что Младшая леди KV35 не может быть идентифицирована как Нефертити, поскольку она не была известна как сестра Эхнатона.^[21] Команда сообщила, что на 99,99% уверены, что Аменхотеп III был отцом человека в KV55, который, в свою очередь, был отцом Тутанхамона.^[22] Достоверность и надежность генетических данных мумифицированных останков подвергались сомнению из-за возможной деградации из-за разложения.^[23] Такие исследователи, как Марк Габольде и Эйдан Додсон утверждают, что Нефертити действительно была матерью Тутанхамона. В этой интерпретации результатов ДНК генетическая близость не связана с браком между братом и сестрой, а является результатом трех поколений двоюродных браков, что делает Нефертити двоюродной сестрой Эхнатона.^[24]

Когда Тутанхамон стал королем, он женился на своей сводной сестре Анхесенпаатен, которая позже сменила имя на Анхесенамун.^[25] Они имели две дочери, ни один из которых не пережил младенчество.^[20] Хотя от двух мумифицированных плодов был получен только неполный генетический профиль, этого было достаточно, чтобы подтвердить, что Тутанхамон был их отцом.^[20] Аналогичным образом, только частичные данные для двух женских мумий из KV21 был получен до сих пор. Предполагается, что KV21A является матерью плодов, но данные недостаточно статистически значимы, чтобы можно было надежно идентифицировать ее как Анхесенамун.^[20] Компьютерная томография исследования, опубликованные в 2011 году, показали, что одна дочь родилась преждевременно на 5–6 месяцах беременности, а другая — на 9-месячном сроке.^[26] Смерть Тутанхамона положила конец королевской линии 18-й династии.^[27]

Царствовать

Тутанхамону было от восьми до девяти лет, когда он взошел на трон и стал фараон,^[30] взяв на престол имя Небхеперуре.^[31] Он правил около девяти лет.^[32] Во время правления Тутанхамона положение Визирь был разделен между Верхний и Нижний Египет. Главный визирь Верхнего Египта был Usermontu. Другая фигура по имени Пентжу также была визирем, но неясно, какие земли. Не совсем известно, действительно ли занимал эту должность Ай, преемник Тутанхамона. Фрагмент золотой фольги из KV58, кажется, указывает, но не определенно, что Ай упоминался как Жрец Маата вместе с эпитетом «визирь, творец маат». Эпитет не соответствует обычному описанию, используемому обычным визирем, но может указывать на неформальный титул. Возможно, Ай использовал титул визиря беспрецедентным образом.^[33]

Египетский священник по имени Manetho написал исчерпывающую историю древнего Египта, в которой упоминает царя по имени Орус, который правил 36 лет и имел дочь по имени Асенчерес, правившую двенадцать лет, и ее брата Ратотиса, правившего всего девять лет.^[34][35] Правители Армана занимают центральное место в списке, но какое имя соответствует какой исторической фигуре, исследователи не соглашаются. Орус и Асенчерес отождествлялись с Хоремхебом и Эхнатоном, а Ратотис — с Тутанхамоном. Имена также связаны с Сменхкаре, Аменхотеп III, Ay и другие в разном порядке.^[36]

Королей почитали после их смерти через морги культы и связанные храмы. Тутанхамон был одним из немногих царей, которым поклонялись таким образом при его жизни.^[37] А стела обнаружен в Карнак и посвящен Амон -Ра и Тутанхамон указывает, что к царю можно было обратиться в его обожествленный заявить о прощении и освободить заявителя от недуга, вызванного грех. Храмы его культа были построены так далеко, как в Кава и Фарас в Нубия. Титул сестры Наместник Куша включал ссылку на обожествленного царя, что свидетельствует об универсальности его культа.^[38]

Для того, чтобы фараон, занимавший божественную должность, был связан с людьми и богами, для них были созданы специальные эпитеты при их восшествии на престол. В древнеегипетский титул также служил для демонстрации своих качеств и связывания их с земным царством. Пять имен были разработаны на протяжении веков, начиная с Имя Хоруса.^[c][39][40] Тутанхамона^[d] оригинал без мужчин был Тутанхатен,^[41] который не имел Имя Небти^[e] или Имя Золотой Сокол^[f] связанный с этим^[43] так как ничего не было найдено с полным протоколом пяти имен.^[грамм] Тутанхатен считалось означать «Живой образ-Атона» еще в 1877 г .; однако не все египтологи согласны с этой интерпретацией. Английский египтолог Баттискомб Ганн считал, что старая интерпретация не соответствовала Богословие Эхнатона. Ганн считал, что такое имя было бы кощунственный. Он видел гудок как глагол, а не как существительное, и дал свой перевод в 1926 году как Жизнь Атона доставляет удовольствие. Профессор Герхард Фехт тоже поверил слову гудок был глаголом. Он отметил, что Эхнатон использовал синица как слово для изображения, а не гудок. Фехт перевел глагол гудок в качестве «Быть ​​совершенным / полным». Используя Атона в качестве предмета, полный перевод Фехта был «Идеальное для жизни-Атона». Блок Гермополиса (два вырезанных фрагмента блока, обнаруженные в Ашмунайне) имеет уникальное написание первого имени, написанного как Тутанхуатен; оно использует анкх как глагол, который поддерживает старый перевод слова Живой-образ-Атона.^[43]

Конец периода Армарны

После коронации и после «принятия совета» с богом Амоном Тутанхамон сделал несколько облаков, которые обогатили и увеличили количество священников культов Амона и Птаха. Он заказал новые статуи божеств из лучших металлов и камня и устроил новую процессию. барки сделаны из лучшего кедра из Ливана и украшены золотом и серебром. Священникам и всем присутствующим танцорам, певцам и обслуживающему персоналу было восстановлено их место, и был издан указ о королевской защите для обеспечения их стабильности в будущем.^[44]

Второй год Тутанхамона в качестве фараона положил начало возвращению к старому египетскому порядку. И он, и его королева удалили слово «Атон» из своих имен, заменив его на «Амон» и перенесли столицу из Ахетатона в Фивы. Он отрекся от бога Атона, отправив его в безвестность, и вернул египетскую религию ее политеистический форма. Его первым действием в качестве фараона было извлечение мумии своего отца из его гробницы в Ахетатоне и перезахоронение ее в Долина королей. Это помогло укрепить его правление. Тутанхамон восстановил стелы, святыни и здания в Карнаке. Он добавил работы в Луксор, а также начал восстановление других храмов по всему Египту, разграбленных Эхнатоном.^[45]

Походы, памятники и строительство

После правления Эхнатона страна была экономически слабой и переживала потрясения. Дипломатические отношения с другими королевствами игнорировались, и Тутанхамон стремился восстановить их, в частности с Митанни. Свидетельством его успеха служат дары из разных стран, найденные в его могиле. Несмотря на его усилия по улучшению отношений, битвы с Нубийцы и Азиаты были записаны в его заупокойном храме в Фивах. В его могиле были доспехи, складные стулья, подходящие для военных кампаний, и луки, и он обучался стрельбе из лука.^[46] Однако, учитывая его молодость и физические недостатки, которые, казалось, требовали использования трости для ходьбы, большинство историков предполагают, что он лично не принимал участия в этих битвах.^[8][47]

Учитывая его возраст, у короля, вероятно, были советники, среди которых предположительно были Ау (сменивший Тутанхамона) и генерал Хоремхеб, Возможный зять и преемник Ай. Хоремхеб пишет, что король назначил его «владыкой земли» в качестве наследного принца для поддержания закона. Он также отметил свою способность успокаивать молодого короля, когда его вспыльчивый гнев.^[47]

В его третьем год царствования Тутанхамон отменил несколько изменений, сделанных во время правления своего отца. Он прекратил поклонение богу Атон и восстановил бога Амон к превосходству. Запрет на культ Амона был снят, и его духовенству были восстановлены традиционные привилегии. Столицу перенесли обратно в Фивы и город Ахетатон был заброшен.^[48] В рамках своей реставрации король инициировал строительные проекты, в частности, в Карнак в Фивах, где он проложил аллею сфинксов, ведущую к храму Мут. Изначально сфинксы были созданы для Эхнатона и Нефертити; им подарили новые головы барана и маленькие статуи короля.^[49] В Луксорском храме он завершил украшение входной колоннады Аменхотепа III.^[50] Были восстановлены изношенные при Эхнатоне памятники, созданы новые культовые изображения бога Амона. Теперь снова стали отмечаться традиционные праздники, в том числе связанные с Апис Бык, Хоремахет, и Opet. Его реставрационная стела, воздвигнутая перед Карнакским храмом, гласит:

Храмы богов и богинь … лежали в руинах. Их святыни были заброшены и заросли. Их святилищ так же не существовало, а их дворцы использовались как дороги … боги отвернулись от этой земли … Если бы кто-нибудь помолился богу о совете, он бы никогда не ответил.^[51]

Здание под названием Храм-оф-Небхеперуре-Возлюбленного-Амона-Который-Приводит-Фивы в порядок, которое может быть идентично зданию под названием Храм-оф-Небхеперре-в-Фивах, возможно, погребальному храму, использовалось переработанный талатат из храмов Карнак Атона на востоке Эхнатона, что указывает на то, что демонтаж этих храмов уже начался.^[52] Многие строительные проекты Тутанхамона не были завершены на момент его смерти и были завершены или узурпированы его преемниками, особенно Хоремхебом. Авеню сфинксов завершил его преемник Ай, а всю дорогу захватил Хоремхеб. Стела Реставрации была узурпирована Хоремхебом; части Храма Небхеперуры в Фивах были переработаны в собственные строительные проекты Хоремхеба.^[53]

Здоровье и смерть

Тутанхамон был худощавого телосложения и ростом примерно 167 см (5 футов 6 дюймов).^[54][55] У него был большой фронт резцы и характерный неправильный прикус Тутмосид королевская линия, к которой он принадлежал.^[56] Анализ одежды, найденной в его гробнице, в частности размеров набедренных повязок и поясов, показывает, что у него была узкая талия и округлые бедра.^[57] В попытках объяснить как его необычное изображение в искусстве, так и его раннюю смерть была выдвинута теория, что Тутанхамон страдал от гинекомастия,^[58] Синдром Марфана, Уилсон – Тернер Х-связанная умственная отсталость синдром, синдром Фрёлиха (адипозогенитальная дистрофия ), Синдром Клайнфельтера, синдром нечувствительности к андрогенам, синдром избытка ароматазы в сочетании со сагиттальным краниосиностоз синдром, Синдром Антли-Бикслера или один из его вариантов.^[59] Также было высказано предположение, что он страдал от наследственной височная эпилепсия в попытке объяснить религиозность своего прадеда Тутмос IV и отец Эхнатон и их ранняя смерть.^[60] Однако этот диагноз требует осторожности.^[61]

В январе 2005 г. Мумия Тутанхамона был Компьютерная томография. Результаты показали, что Тутанхамон частично расщелина твердого неба и, возможно, легкий случай сколиоз.^[62][63] Сканирование также показало, что его правая ступня была плоский с гипофалангизм, а его левая нога была забитый и пострадал костный некроз второй и третьей плюсневые кости (Болезнь Фрейберга или же Болезнь Келера II ).^[64] Недуг мог заставить Тутанхамона ходить с тростью, многие из которых были найдены в его могиле.^[20] Генетическое тестирование через STR анализ отверг гипотезу гинекомастия и краниосиностозы (например, синдром Антли – Бикслера) или Синдром Марфана.^[8] Генетическое тестирование генов STEVOR, AMA1 или MSP1, специфичных для Плазмодий falciparum выявили признаки малярия tropica у 4 мумий, в том числе у Тутанхамона.^[8] В настоящее время это старейшее из известных генетических доказательств болезни.^[65] Команда обнаружила ДНК нескольких штаммов паразита, что указывает на то, что он неоднократно заражался самым тяжелым штаммом малярии. Его малярийные инфекции могли вызвать фатальный иммунный ответ в организме или спровоцировать циркуляторный шок.^[66] Компьютерная томография также показала, что он получил сложный перелом левой ноги. Эта травма, являющаяся результатом современного повреждения, была исключена из-за неровности краев перелома; современные повреждения имеют острые края. Внутри перелома присутствовали бальзамирующие вещества, указывающие на то, что он был связан с открытой раной; никаких признаков заживления не было.^[67]

Нет сохранившихся записей об обстоятельствах смерти Тутанхамона; он был предметом серьезных дискуссий и серьезных исследований.^[68]В конечном итоге было установлено, что его смерть, вероятно, была результатом сочетания его множественных расстройств ослабления, перелома ноги, возможно, в результате падения, и тяжелой малярийной инфекции.^[69] Расположение разреза для бальзамирования мумии уникально.^[70] Это, в сочетании с двумя уровнями смолы внутри его черепа, привело к предположению, что первоначальная мумификация была проведена неопытным бальзамировщиком.^[71]

Теория убийства в результате удара по голове возникла в 1968 году. рентгеновский снимок который показал два фрагмента кости внутри черепа.^[72] Эта теория была опровергнута дальнейшим анализом рентгеновские лучи и компьютерная томография. Было установлено, что фрагменты межчерепной кости являются результатом современной распаковки мумии, поскольку они рыхлые и не прилипают к бальзамирующей смоле.^[73] Никаких доказательств истончения костей или кальцинированных мембран, которые могли бы указывать на смертельный удар по голове, обнаружено не было.^[74] Также было высказано предположение, что молодой царь погиб в результате аварии с колесницей из-за множества тяжелых травм, в том числе из-за отсутствия передней части его грудной клетки и ребер.^[75][76] Однако отсутствие ребер вряд ли может быть результатом травмы, полученной во время смерти; Фотографии, сделанные по завершении раскопок Картера в 1926 году, показывают, что грудная стенка короля была цела, на ней все еще был расшитый бисером воротник с наконечниками с соколиной головой. Отсутствие воротника и грудной стенки было отмечено еще в 1968 г. рентгеновский снимок^[77] и дополнительно подтверждено компьютерной томографией.^[63] Вероятно, что передняя часть его груди была снята грабителями во время кражи вышитого бисером воротника; замысловатая украшенная бусами тюбетейка, в которой король был изображен в 1926 году, также пропала к 1968 году.^[78]

А реконструкция лица Тутанхамона была проведена в 2005 году Египетский Высший совет древностей и Национальная география. Три отдельные команды — египетская, французская и американская — работали отдельно, чтобы приблизить лицо мальчика-короля. В то время как египетская и французская команды знали, что их предметом был Тутанхамон, американская команда работала вслепую. Все команды показали очень похожие результаты, но в конечном итоге именно французская команда была отлита из силикона.^[79]

Могила

Основная статья: KV62

Тутанхамона похоронили в гробнице, которая была необычно маленькой, учитывая его статус. Его смерть могла произойти неожиданно, до завершения строительства более грандиозной королевской гробницы, в результате чего его мумия быть похороненным в гробнице, предназначенной для кого-то другого. Это сохранит соблюдение обычных 70 дней между смертью и погребением.^[80] Его могила была ограблена по крайней мере дважды в древности, но, судя по изъятым предметам (включая скоропортящиеся масла и духи) и свидетельствам восстановления гробницы после вторжений, эти ограбления, вероятно, имели место в течение нескольких месяцев, максимум от первоначального захоронения. Местоположение гробницы было потеряно, потому что она была захоронена обломками из последующих гробниц, а над входом в гробницу были построены дома рабочих.^[81]

Повторное открытие

Право концессии на раскопки Долины царей принадлежало Теодор Дэвис с 1905 по 1914 год. За это время он раскопал десять гробниц, включая почти неповрежденную, но не царскую гробницу Королева Тия родители, Юя и Tjuyu. Продолжая работать там в последующие годы, он не обнаружил ничего важного.^[82] Дэвис нашел несколько предметов в KV58 ссылаясь на Тутанхамона, который включает ручки и ручки, носящие его имя, что наиболее важно, тайник для бальзамирования царя (KV54 ). Он считал, что это потерянная гробница фараона, и опубликовал свои выводы вместе с линией; «Я боюсь, что Долина гробниц исчерпана».^[83][84] В 1907 г. Говард Картер был приглашен Уильямом Гарстином и Гастон Масперо раскапывать Джордж Герберт, пятый граф Карнарвон в долине. Граф Карнарвон и Картер надеялись, что это приведет к получению ими концессии, когда Дэвис отказался от нее, но им пришлось довольствоваться раскопками в разных частях реки. Фиванский некрополь еще семь лет.^[85]

После систематических поисков, начавшихся в 1915 году, Картер обнаружил настоящую гробницу Тутанхамона (KV62) в ноябре 1922 года.^[86] К февралю 1923 года вестибюль был очищен от всего, кроме двух сторожевых статуй. День и время были выбраны для вскрытия гробницы с участием около двадцати назначенных свидетелей, в том числе лорда Карнарвона, нескольких египетских официальных лиц, представителей музеев и сотрудников правительственного бюро печати. 17 февраля 1923 года, сразу после двух часов дня, печать была сломана.^[87]

Содержание

В гробнице было найдено 5 398 предметов, в том числе цельный золотой гроб, медицинская маска, троны, луки, трубы, а чаша лотоса, два Imiut фетиши, киоски с золотым носком, мебель, еда, вино, сандалии и свежее белье. Ховарду Картеру понадобилось 10 лет, чтобы каталогизировать предметы.^[88] Недавний анализ предполагает кинжал извлечен из гробницы имел железный клинок, сделанный из метеорит; Изучение артефактов того времени, в том числе других артефактов из гробницы Тутанхамона, могло дать ценную информацию о технологиях обработки металлов в Средиземноморье того времени.^[89][90]

Почти 80% погребального инвентаря Тутанхамона принадлежало женщине-фараону. Нефернеферуатен погребальные товары, в том числе Маска Тутанхамона.^[91][92] В 2015 году английский египтолог. Николас Ривз опубликованные свидетельства того, что на более раннем картуше на знаменитой золотой маске Тутанхамона было написано: «Анххеперуре мери-Неферхеперуре» (Анххеперуре, возлюбленная Эхнатона); поэтому маска изначально создавалась для Нефертити, Главная царица Эхнатона, которая использовала королевское имя Анххеперуре, когда она, скорее всего, взошла на трон после смерти своего мужа.^[93][34][94] Нефернефруатон, возможно, была свергнута в борьбе за власть и, возможно, лишена королевских захоронений, или она была похоронена с другим набором погребального оборудования Эхнатона чиновниками Тутанхамона, поскольку Тутанхамон унаследовал ее как царь.^[95] На смену Нефернеферуатон, вероятно, пришел Тутанхамон, учитывая наличие ее погребальных принадлежностей в его могиле.^[93][96]

4 ноября 2007 года, через 85 лет после открытия Картера, мумия Тутанхамона была выставлена ​​на обозрение в его подземной гробнице в Луксор, когда завернутая в льняную ткань мумию вынули из золотого саркофага в стеклянный ящик с климат-контролем. Корпус был разработан, чтобы предотвратить повышенную скорость разложения, вызванную влажностью и теплом от туристов, посещающих гробницу.^[97] В 2009 году гробницу закрыли на реставрацию Министерство древностей и Институт сохранения Гетти. Изначально планировалось, что закрытие будет длиться пять лет, чтобы восстановить стены, пострадавшие от влажности, однако Египетская революция 2011 года установить проект обратно. Гробница вновь открылась в феврале 2019 года.^[98]

Проклятие по слухам

На протяжении многих лет ходят слухи о «проклятие фараонов «(вероятно, подпитывается газетами, ищущими продажи на момент открытия)^[99] упорствовал, подчеркивая раннюю смерть некоторых из тех, кто вошел в гробницу. Самым известным был Джордж Герберт, пятый граф Карнарвон, который умер 5 апреля 1923 года, через пять месяцев после открытия первой ступеньки, ведущей к гробнице, 4 ноября 1922 года.^[100]

Причиной смерти Карнарвона стала пневмония, возникшая на [лице] рожистое воспаление (стрептококковая инфекция кожи и подлежащих мягких тканей).^[101] В 1901 году граф попал в автомобильную аварию, из-за чего он стал очень слабым и нездоровым. Его врач рекомендовал более теплый климат, поэтому в 1903 году Карнарвоны отправились в Египет, где граф заинтересовался египтологией.^[100] Наряду с нагрузками, вызванными раскопками, Карнарвон уже находился в ослабленном состоянии, когда инфекция привела к пневмонии.^[102]

Исследование показало, что из 58 человек, которые присутствовали, когда гробница и саркофаг были вскрыты, только восемь умерли за десяток лет;^[103] Говард Картер умер от лимфома в 1939 году в возрасте 64 лет.^[104] Среди последних выживших — Леди Эвелин Герберт, Лорд Карнарвон дочь, которая была одной из первых, кто вошел в гробницу после ее открытия в ноябре 1922 года, прожила еще 57 лет и умерла в 1980 году.^[105] и американский археолог ДЖО. Киннаман умер в 1961 году, через 39 лет после этого события.^[106]

Наследие

Слава Тутанхамона — это прежде всего результат его хорошо сохранившейся гробницы и всемирных выставок связанных с ним артефактов. В качестве Джон Манчип Уайт пишет в своем предисловии к изданию 1977 года Картера Открытие гробницы Тутанхамона«Фараон, который при жизни был одним из наименее уважаемых фараонов Египта, стал после смерти самым известным».^[107]

Открытия в гробнице стали важной новостью в 1920-х годах. Тутанхамона стали называть современные неологизм, «Тутанхамон». Древнеегипетские ссылки стали обычным явлением в популярной культуре, в том числе Аллея жестяных кастрюль песни; Самым популярным из последних стал «Старый король Тутанхамон». Гарри фон Тильцер с 1923 года, записанную такими выдающимися художниками того времени, как Джонс и Заяц и Софи Такер. «Тутанхамон» стал названием продуктов, предприятий и собака президента США Герберт Гувер.^[108]

Международные выставки

Артефакты Тутанхамона путешествовали по миру с беспрецедентным количеством посетителей.^[110] Выставки начались в 1962 году, когда Алжир выиграл свой независимость из Франция. С окончанием конфликта музей Лувр в Париже удалось быстро организовать выставку сокровищ Тутанхамона благодаря Кристиан Дерош Ноблкур. Французский египтолог уже был в Египте в рамках ЮНЕСКО встреча. Французская выставка привлекла 1,2 миллиона посетителей. Ноблкур также убедил министра культуры Египта разрешить британскому фотографу Джордж Рейнберд повторно сфотографировать коллекцию в цвете. Новые цветные фотографии, а также выставка в Лувре положили начало возрождению Тутанхамона.^[111]

В 1965 году выставка Тутанхамона отправилась в Токио, Япония где она собрала больше посетителей, чем будущая выставка в Нью-Йорке в 1979 году. Выставка проходила в Киотский муниципальный художественный музей с почти 1,75 миллиона посетителей. В блокбастер аттракцион превзошел все другие выставки сокровищ Тутанхамона в течение следующих 60 лет.^[110][112] Сокровища Тутанхамона тур проходил с 1972 по 1979 год. Эта выставка впервые была показана в Лондоне на британский музей с 30 марта по 30 сентября 1972 года. Выставку посетили более 1,6 миллиона посетителей.^[110][113] Выставка переместилась во многие другие страны, включая США, Советский Союз, Японию, Францию, Канаду и Западную Германию. Метрополитен-музей организовал выставку в США, которая проходила с 17 ноября 1976 г. по 15 апреля 1979 г. Ее посетило более восьми миллионов человек.^[114][115]

В 2005 году Высший совет древностей Египта в партнерстве с Arts and Exhibitions International и Национальным географическим обществом начал тур по сокровищам Тутанхамона и другим погребальным объектам 18-й династии, на этот раз названный Тутанхамон и золотой век фараонов. В нем были представлены те же экспонаты, что и Тутанхамон: Золотая будущая жизнь в несколько ином формате. Ожидалось, что он соберет более трех миллионов человек, но превысил этот показатель, поскольку почти четыре миллиона человек посетили только первые четыре остановки тура.^[116] Выставка стартовала в Лос-Анджелесе, затем переехала в Форт Лодердейл, Чикаго, Филадельфия и Лондон, прежде чем окончательно вернуться в Египет в августе 2008 года. В США выставка на бис прошла в Далласский художественный музей.^[117] После Далласа выставка переехала в Музей де Янга в Сан-Франциско, а затем Выставка Discovery Times Square в Нью-Йорке.^[118]

Выставка впервые посетила Австралию, открывшись в Мельбурнском музее, где она была единственной австралийской остановкой, прежде чем сокровища Египта вернулись в Каир в декабре 2011 года.^[119]

Выставка включала 80 экспонатов времен правления непосредственных предшественников Тутанхамона в 18-й династии, таких как Хатшепсут, чья торговая политика значительно увеличила богатство этой династии и позволила получить щедрое богатство погребальных артефактов Тутанхамона, а также 50 из гробницы Тутанхамона. На выставке не было золотой маски, которая была характерной особенностью тура 1972–1979 годов, поскольку египетское правительство решило, что повреждение, нанесенное предыдущим артефактам во время туров, не позволяет этой маске присоединиться к ним.^[120]

В 2018 году было объявлено, что самая большая коллекция артефактов Тутанхамона, составляющая сорок процентов всей коллекции, снова покинет Египет в 2019 году для международного тура под названием; «Король Тут: Сокровища Золотого Фараона».^[121] Тур 2019-2022 начался с выставки под названием; «Тутанхамон, Сокровища фараона», который был запущен в Лос-Анджелесе, а затем отправился в Париж. Выставка, представленная на Grande Halle de la Villette в Париже проходила с марта по сентябрь 2019 года. На выставке было представлено 150 золотых монет, а также различные ювелирные изделия, скульптуры и резные фигурки, а также знаменитая золотая маска Тутанхамона. Раскрутка выставки заполнила улицы Парижа афишами мероприятия. Полный международный тур заканчивается открытием нового Большой Египетский музей в Каире, где сокровища будут постоянно храниться.^[122]

Происхождение

Смотрите также

• Храм Анубиса
• Глава Нефертема
• Мумия Тутанхамона
• Кинжал Тутанхамона из метеоритного железа
• Трубы Тутанхамона

Примечания

Цитаты

Рекомендации

дальнейшее чтение

внешняя ссылка

• Мрачные тайны города фараона —Новости BBC
• Сайт Тутанхамона и эпохи золотых фараонов
• Британский музей Тутанхамона изюминка
• «Швейцарские генетики исследуют генетический профиль Тутанхамона» к Рейтер
• Окончательный Тутанхамона Документальный фильм производства PBS Серии Тайны мертвых