Новгородская русь как пишется

Новгородская Русь
← 862 — 882 →
Столица	Новгород
Язык(и)	Древненовгородский диалект
Форма правления	Монархия, республика
Династия	Рюриковичи
— 862 — 879	Рюрик
— 879 — 882	Олег
История
—  862	Основано
—  882	Захват Киева Князем Олегом, слияние земель и перенос столицы в Киев

История России
Древние славяне, русы (до IX века)
Древнерусское государство (IX—XIII века)
Новгородская Русь (862—882)
Киевская Русь (882—1240); (распад)
Удельная Русь (XII—XVI века)
Новгородская республика (1136—1478)
Владимирское княжество (1157—1389)
Княжество Литовское и Русское (1236—1795)
Московское княжество (1263—1547)
Объединение Руси
Русское царство (1547—1721)
Российская империя (1721—1917)
Российская республика (1917)
Советская Россия (1917—1922)
Альтернативные образования
Советский Союз (1922—1991)
Российская Федерация (с 1991)
Правители | Хронология | Экспансия Портал «Россия»

Новгородская Русь — объединение восточно-славянских (ильменские словене, кривичи и др.), финно-угорских племеных союзов (чудь, весь) и выходцев из Скандинавии сложившееся к IX веку вокруг Новгорода (или его города-предшественника, на роль которого претендуют Старая Ладога и гипотетический Словенск) и историографическое название первого (докиевского) периода существования Русского государства во главе с династией Рюриковичей^[1]. Для более позднего периода является синонимом Новгородской земли.

Докиевский период

По одной из версий, соответствует «ас-Славийи» арабских источников X века. Византийский император Константин Багрянородный назвал земли новгородцев Внешней Россией (в отличие от киевских владений — России).^[2]

Летописным основателем считается варяжский князь Рюрик, княживший с 862 по 879 год. Археологические данные свидетельствуют, что новгородская княжеская резиденция середины IX века обладала яркими признаками скандинавского присутствия, причём возникла значительно ранее города Новгорода.^[3]

Однако, согласно летописям, варяги и раньше (c 859 или возможно с 852)^[4] брали дань с территории Новгородской Руси, куда входили земли проживания чуди, ильменских словен, мери, веси и части кривичей.

В эпоху Рюрика, помимо Новгорода из городов Новгородской Руси упоминаются также Ладога, Белоозеро, Изборск, Ростов, Муром, Полоцк. Рюрик сажает в основных городах своих наместников, а Никоновская летопись в этот период упоминает о походах киевского князя Аскольда на полочан и кривичей, о подавлении Рюриком выступления оппозиции и бегстве части её в Киев к Аскольду.

Преемник Рюрика князь Олег подчинил себе города Смоленск и Любеч в 882, а затем утвердился в Киеве, куда перенёс столицу государства.

Новгородская земля

продолжает существование в составе Киевской Руси в качестве новгородской земли, сохраняя некоторую самостоятельность. В тексте русско-византийского договора 907 года перечисляются города, где «сидят великие князья, подвластные Олегу»^[5] Новгород среди них не значится, однако «Повесть временных лет» сообщает об участии войск северных племён в походах на Византию Олега в 907 году и Игоря в 943 году, об устроении в 947 году княгиней Ольгой системы погостов и уроков в Новгородской земле и ежегодной дани в пользу киевского князя вплоть до княжения Ярослава. Вероятно, вмешательство в дела Новгородской Руси ограничивалось данью Киеву, так как согласно летописи в 970 году новгородцы просили себе князя у киевского князя Святослава и ставили условие: «Если не пойдете к нам, то сами добудем себе князя.»

Сохранению значения и частичной самостоятельности Новгородской земли способствовала борьба за власть в Киеве. Новгородцы составляли основу войск Владимира Святославича и Ярослава Владимировича в их борьбе против братьев соответственно в 977—980 годах и 1015—1019 годах.

Отказ новгородцев в 1102 году принять сына киевского князя Святополка Изяславича стал важным этапом в обособлении Новгородской земли от власти киевских князей. После смерти Мстислава Великого в 1132 году его сын Всеволод оставался новгородским наместником до 1136 года.

В период феодальной раздробленности участие новгородцев в междоусобной борьбе ограничивалось нуждами защиты самостоятельности Новгородской земли, прежде всего от соседнего Владимиро-Суздальского княжества, князья которого во время конфликтов прибегали обычно к захвату Торжка и экономической блокаде Новгорода. Новгородцы в таких случаях обычно вступали в союз с противниками владимирских князей и выходили из столкновений победителями. Но также нуждами обороны (теперь уже от внешних врагов) был продиктован союз Новгорода с владимирскими князьями в начале XIII века, когда Монголо-татарское нашествие на Русь не докатилось до Новгорода во многом благодаря тому, что первый удар приняли на себя рязанские и владимирские князья. Также совместными усилиями удавалось останавливать литовцев в 1225 году и 1239 году и Тевтонский орден в 1242 году (Ледовое побоище). В период монголо-татарского ига заинтересованность Золотой орды в переписи и получении дани с Новгородской земли использовалась владимирскими, а затем и московскими князьями в установлении контроля над Новгородом. В период 1231—1333 гг. новгородскими князьями были представители только владимирского княжеского дома, затем до 1478 года попеременно литовского и московского.

Примечания

Библиография

• Новгородская карамзинская летопись, первая выборка, ПСРЛ, т.42, СПб 2002
• A.J.Hipping, Neva och Nyenskans, Helsingfors, 1836 «Нева и Ниеншанц», СПб, 2003
• Летописи Новгородские и Софийская
• Неволин, «О пятинах новгородских»
• Соловьев, «Об отношениях Н. к великим князьям»
• Андреевский, «О договоре Н. с немецкими городами и Готландом»
• Костомаров, «Северно-русские народоправства»
• Беляев, «Рассказы из русской истории» (т. II)
• Пассек, «Н. сам в себе»; Бережков, «О торговле Руси с Ганзой до конца XV в.»
• Никитский, «Очерк внутренней истории церкви в Вел. Н.»
• Добровольский Д. А. Вопрос об основании Новгорода в летописании XI — начала XII в. // Древняя Русь. Вопросы медиевистики. 2008. № 3 (33). C. 25—26.

См. также

• Русский каганат
• Великий Новгород
• Древненовгородский диалект
• Новгородская земля
• Новгородская республика (1136—1478)
• Антинорманизм

Ссылки

• Новгородская Русь по берестяным грамотам
• Новгород Великий // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона: В 86 томах (82 т. и 4 доп.) — СПб., 1890—1907.
• Великий Новгород- Дверь в Европу
• История собирания русских земель: Великий Новгород

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Новгородская Русь (Новгородская земля), в отличие от понятия «Киевская Русь», понятие вполне исторически обоснованное. Новгородская Русь — объединение восточно-славянских (ильменские словене, кривичи и др.), финно-угорских племенных союзов (чудь, весь) и выходцев из Скандинавии сложившееся к IX веку вокруг Новгорода и историографическое название первого периода существования Русского государства во главе с династией Рюриковичей. 

Согласно легенде, после того, как в конце IX века новгородским князем Олегом был захвачен Киев, его столица (до разорения города монголами в 1240 году) была перенесена туда. Столица Великих князей из династии рюриковичей неоднократно перемещалась по Русской равнине, пока, наконец, не обосновалась в Москве. Подчинение  Новгородской Руси киевским князьям было весьма относительным. Например, в тексте русско-византийского договора 907 года перечисляются города, где «сидят великие князья, подвластные Олегу», Новгород среди них не значится.  С 1136 года Новгородская Русь получила название Новгородская республика (Господин Великий Новгород) — русское средневековое государство. Во времена монгольского нашествия на Русь и последующих монгольских и ордынских походов Новгороду удалось избежать разорения благодаря удалённому расположению и тому, что в 1259 году Новгородская земля при содействии Александра Невского была вовлечена в данническую зависимость от Орды. В период наибольшего расцвета, кроме собственно Новгородской земли, включала также территории от Балтийского моря на западе до Уральских гор на востоке и от Белого моря на севере до верховьев Волги и Западной Двины на юге.

Новгород издавна имел торгово-экономические и политические связи с Западной и Северной Европой. В конце XI века в городе уже существовала торговая фактория готландских купцов — так называемый Готский двор с церковью Святого Олава, именовавшаяся новгородцами «Варяжской божницей». В то же время на Готланде, в Висбю, также существовало подворье новгородских купцов, тоже с церковью, остатки которой сохранились в этом городе. Стратегическим торговым партнером средневекового Новгорода был Ганзейский союз, объединявший в период с XIV до XVI веков (формально до 1669 года) северогерманские города во главе с Любеком. Именно в Новгороде, а также в Лондоне, Брюгге (Фландрия) и Бергене (Норвегия), находились крупнейшие ганзейские конторы. Немцы все свои товары реализовали в Новгороде; в другие русские земли западноевропейские товары развозили к своей выгоде уже русские купцы. Через Новгород в города Ганзы вывозились товары, как привезенные из других русских земель, так и доставляемые по Волге из Персии, Индии и стран Средней Азии и Ближнего Востока.  

Необходимо заметить, что новгородцами торговый путь «Путь из варяг в греки» по Днепру практически не использовался до правления кагана Святослава, а древность этого пути была выдумана редактором «Повести временных лет» для обоснования посещения апостолом Андреем Русской земли.  В то время он путешествовал из Константинополя в Рим по Дунаю по пути в 5-6 раз короче, чем путь по Днепру. Гораздо  большее значение в Средневековье имел путь из варяг в персы (Волжский торговый путь). В период своего расцвета во второй половине IX века Волжский торговый путь обеспечивал экономическое благосостояние трёх государственных образований — Руси в верховьях, Волжской Булгарии в средней части и Хазарского каганата в низовьях Волги.

C XIV века Тверское, Московское княжества и Великое княжество Литовское пытались подчинить себе Новгород. В 1470 году новгородцы запросили епископа у киевского митрополита (Киев в то время принадлежал Великому княжеству Литовскому), хотя с 1448 года  Собор русских епископов признал  митрополитом Киевским и всея Руси  Иону Московского.  Этот шаг новгородцев дал повод Великому князю Московскому Ивану III объявил поход на Новгород. Его войска встретились с новгородским ополчением на реке Шелони, нанесли новгородцам поражение и  взяли город.  В 1478 году Господин Великий Новгород был присоединён к Великому княжеству Московскому. После присоединения Новгорода к Москве Новгород сохранил положение ведущего партнера Ганзы и не утратил лидирующих торговых позиций на Руси. 

Таким образом, претензии киевских «шумеров» на их первостепенное значение в формировании государственных образований на Русской равнине и особые отношения с христианской Западной Европой весьма преувеличены. Также как преувеличено и значение торгово-экономических связей европейских стран по пути «из варяг в греки» (по Днепру через Киев). Многое указывает на то, что фальсификация истории Руси была предпринята в угоду концепции «Москва — третий Рим», в которой Киев играл центральную роль, как легендарное место Крещения Руси.

В современном Великом Новгороде нет «ленинопада», подобного украинскому. Памятники вождю Октябрьской революции весьма достойные, сделанные в традиционном для советской пропаганды стиле.

Весьма своеобразен флаг Великого Новгорода. Триколор повторяет чередование цветов флага Голандии, а по ориентации полос — флаг Франции. В центре флага — герб Великого Новгорода, прообразом которому послужила печать новгородского наместника, изготовленная в 1565 году по приказу Ивана Грозного.

В настоящее время признаков процветания Великого Новгорода приезжим, увы, не наблюдается. Ужасает состояние общественного транспорта и дорог за пределами исторического центра. Весьма печально выглядит советское наследие — недостроенные и переоборудованные в торговые центры заводы… Как и в большинстве областных центров России. 

Но есть и приятное в современном Великом Новгороде — Шведский хлеб с клюквой (весьма рекомендую попробовать) и доброжелательность горожан.

Novgorod Republic Новгородскаѧ землѧ (Old East Slavic)
1136–1478
Flag (c. 1385) Coat of arms (c. 1385)
Sign on Novgorod’s seal (1426):
The Novgorod Republic c. 1400
Capital	Novgorod
Common languages	Official languages: Old Church Slavonic Unofficial languages: Old Novgorod dialect, Old East Slavic, Finnic languages
Religion	Eastern Orthodoxy
Government	Mixed republic
Prince
• 1136–1138 (first)	Sviatoslav Olgovich
• 1462–1478 (last)	Ivan III
History
• Established	1136
• Disestablished	1478
Preceded by Succeeded by Kievan Rus’ Pskov Republic Grand Duchy of Moscow Principality of Great Perm
Today part of	Russia

The Novgorod Republic was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east, including the city of Novgorod and the Lake Ladoga regions of modern Russia. The Republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League and its Slavic, Baltic and Finnic people were much influenced by the culture of the Viking-Varangians and Byzantine people.^[1]

Name[edit]

The state was called «Novgorod» and «Novgorod the Great» (Veliky Novgorod, Russian: Великий Новгород) with the form «Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great» (Gosudar Gospodin Veliky Novgorod, Russian: Государь Господин Великий Новгород) becoming common in the 15th century. Novgorod Land and Novgorod volost’ usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod. Novgorod Republic itself is a much later term,^[2] although the polity was described as a republic as early as in the beginning of the 16th century.^[3][4] The Soviet historians frequently used the terms Novgorod Feudal Republic and Novgorod Boyar Republic.^[5]

History[edit]

Novgorod was populated by various Slavic, Finnic and Baltic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy. However, these tribes came together during the beginning of the 9th century to try to form a negotiated settlement to end military aggression amongst each other.^[6] The Novgorod First Chronicle, a collection of writings depicting the history of Novgorod from 1016 to 1471, states that these tribes wanted to «Seek a prince who may rule over us and judge us according to law.»^[7] Novgorodian Rus’ and its inhabitants were much influenced by the Viking culture and people.^[8]

Novgorod Republic[edit]

From the late 11th century Novgorodians asserted greater control over the determination of their rules and rejected a politically dependent relationship to Kiev.^[9]

Among the Rus, the Novgorodians were the first to reach the regions between the Arctic Ocean and Lake Onega. Even though there is no definitive account of the precise timing of their arrival at the northern rivers that flowed into the Arctic, there are chronicles which mention that one expedition reached the Pechora River in 1032, and trading was established as early as in 1096 with the Yugra tribe.^[10]

Chronicles also stated that the Novgorodians paid tribute to the Prince of Kiev by 1113. Some time after this, the administration of the principality seemed to have matured. The Novgorod tysiatskii and posadniki appointed boyars from the cities and collected revenues for administration in the territories it held. A charter from the 1130s mentioned 30 administrative posts in Novgorod territory, where revenues were collected regularly and sent as a tithe to the Novgorod bishop. Throughout the 12th century, Novgorod utilized the Baltic-Volga-Caspian trade route, not only for trading but also for bringing food from the fertile Oka region to their city.^[10]

Rostov-Suzdal comprised the territory of the important Oka region and lands along the vital Sheksna River. This river lay in the Northern Volga tributary region. Whomever controlled the river was able to block food supplies causing a famine in Novgorod. Perhaps due to these fears, Novgorod led a failed invasion of Suzdal in 1134. They tried again and succeeded in 1149. Alternatively, Novgorod, in a bid to appease Suzdal, accepted some Suzdalians as rulers of Novgorod. Despite these events, Suzdal still blocked off trade to Novgorod twice and intercepted Novgorod’s tributes.^[10]

In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich and over the next century and a half were able to invite in and dismiss a number of princes. However, these invitations or dismissals were often based on who was the dominant prince in Rus’ at the time, and not on any independent thinking on the part of Novgorod.^[11]

The city of Pskov, initially part of Novgorod Land, had de facto independence from as early as the 13th century after opening a trading post for merchants of the Hanseatic League. Several princes such as Vsevolod Mstislavich (before 1117–1138) and Dovmont (c. 1240–1299) reigned in Pskov without any deference to, or consultation with, the prince or other officials in Novgorod. The independence of the Pskov Republic was acknowledged in the 1348 Treaty of Bolotovo. However, the Archbishop of Novgorod continued to head the church in Pskov and kept the title «Archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Pskov» until 1589. The Republic was the subject of political rivalry between Poland and Lithuania on one side and the Grand Duchy of Moscow on the other side in the 14th and 15th centuries.

In the 12th–15th centuries, the Novgorodian Republic expanded east and northeast. The Novgorodians explored the areas around Lake Onega, along the Northern Dvina, and coastlines of the White Sea. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Novgorodians explored the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, and the West-Siberian river Ob. The lands to the north of the city, rich with fur, sea fauna and salt among others were of great economic importance to the Novgorodians, who fought a protracted series of wars with Moscow beginning in the late 14th century in order to keep these lands. Losing them meant economic and cultural decline for the city and its inhabitants. Indeed, the ultimate failure of the Novgorodians to win these wars led to the downfall of the Novgorod Republic.^{[citation needed]}

Fall of the Republic[edit]

Tver, Muscovy, and Lithuania fought over control of Novgorod and its enormous wealth from the 14th century. Upon becoming the Grand Prince of Vladimir, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver sent his governors to Novgorod. A series of disagreements with Mikhail pushed Novgorod towards closer ties with Muscovy during the reign of Grand Prince George. In part, Tver’s proximity (the Tver Principality is contiguous with the Novgorodian Land) threatened Novgorod. It was feared that a Tverite prince would annex Novgorodian lands and thus weaken the Republic. At the time, though, Muscovy did not border Novgorod, and since the Muscovite princes were further afield, they were more acceptable as princes of Novgorod. They could come to Novgorod’s aid when needed but would be too far away to meddle too much in the Republic’s affairs.

As Muscovy grew in strength, however, the Muscovite princes became a serious threat to Novgorod. Ivan Kalita, Simeon the Proud and other Muscovite monarchs sought to limit Novgorod’s independence. In 1397, a critical conflict took place between Muscovy and Novgorod, when Moscow annexed the Dvina Lands along the course of the Northern Dvina. These lands were crucial to Novgorod’s well-being since much of the city’s furs came from there.^[12][13] This territory was returned to Novgorod the following year.

Resisting the Muscovite oppression, the government of Novgorod sought an alliance with Poland–Lithuania. Most Novgorodian boyars wished to maintain the Republic’s independence since if Novgorod were to be conquered, the boyars’ wealth would flow to the grand prince and his Muscovite boyars, and the Novgorodians would fall into decline. Most of them didn’t earn enough to pay for war.^[14] According to tradition, Marfa Boretskaya, the wife of Posadnik Isak Boretskii, was the main proponent of an alliance with Poland-Lithuania to save the Republic.

According to this legend, Boretskaya invited the Lithuanian princeling Mikhail Olelkovich and asked him to become her husband and the ruler of Novgorod. She also concluded an alliance with Casimir, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. The prospects of changing allegiance in favor of the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania caused a major commotion among the commoners. Janet Martin and Gail Lenhoff have recently argued that Boretskaya was scapegoated, probably by Archbishop Feofil (r. 1470–1480) in order to shift the blame from him for his betrayal of the terms of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy, which forbade Novgorod from conducting foreign affairs without grand princely approval.^[15]

While the extent of Boretskaya’s role in the Lithuanian party is probably exaggerated, Novgorod did indeed try to turn to the King of Poland. A draft treaty, allegedly found among the loot after the Battle of Shelon River, was drawn up between Casimir and the Novgorodians.^[16]

Muscovite authorities saw Novgorod’s behavior as a repudiation of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy and went to war against the city. The army of Moscow won a decisive victory in the Battle of Shelon River on July 1471, which severely limited Novgorod’s freedom to act thereafter, although the city maintained its formal independence for the next seven years. In 1478, Ivan III sent his army to take the city. He destroyed the veche, tore down the Veche bell, the ancient symbol of participatory governance, civil society, and legal rights, and destroyed the library and archives, thus ending the independence of Novgorod.^[17] After the takeover, Ivan took 81.7% of Novgorod’s land, half for himself and the rest for his allies.^[18] The Novgorod Chronicle which had been critical of Ivan III before the fall of Novgorod thus described the conquest in its aftermath, justifying it on the grounds of purported conversion of Novgorodians to the Catholic faith:^[19]

Thus did Great Prince Ivan advance with all his host against his domain of Novgorod because of the rebellious spirit of its people, their pride and conversion to Latinism. With a great and overwhelming force did he occupy the entire territory of Novgorod from frontier to frontier, inflicting on every part of it the dread powers of his fire and sword.

Government[edit]

The city state of Novgorod had developed procedures of governance that held a large measure of democratic participation far in advance of the rest of Europe^[20] but that share several similarities with the democratic traditions of Scandinavian peasant republics. The people had the power to elect city officials and they even had the power to elect and fire the prince. The Chronicle writer then goes on to describe a «town meeting» where these decisions would have been made, which included people from all social classes ranging from the Posadniki (Burgomaster), to the Chernye Liudi (literally, the black folks) or the lowest free class.^[21][22] The precise constitution of the medieval Novgorodian Republic is uncertain, although traditional histories have created the image of a highly institutionalized network of veches (public assemblies) and a government of posadniks (burgomaster), tysyatskys («thousandmen,» originally the head of the town militia, but later a judicial and commercial official), other members of aristocratic families, and the archbishops of Novgorod.

Novgorod was called a republic by Sigismund von Herberstein in his Notes on Muscovite Affairs written at least half a century after the conquest of Novgorod.^[3]

Soviet-era Marxist scholarship frequently described the political system of Novgorod as a «feudal republic», placing it within the Marxist historiographic periodization (slavery – feudalism – capitalism – socialism – communism).^[23][24] Many scholars today, however, question whether Russia ever really had a feudal political system parallel to that of the medieval West.^{[citation needed]}

Archbishop[edit]

Some scholars argue that the archbishop was the head of the executive branch of the government, although it is difficult to determine the exact competence of the various officials. It is possible that there was a «Council of Lords» (Совет Господ) that was headed by the archbishop and met in the archiepiscopal palace (and in the Chamber of Facets after 1433).^[25][26]

The (at least nominal) executives of Novgorod were always the Princes of Novgorod, invited by Novgorodians from the neighboring states, even though their power waned in the 13th and early 14th centuries.^[27][28] It is unclear if the archbishop of Novgorod was the real head of state or chief executive of the Novgorod Republic, but in any case he remained an important town official. In addition to overseeing the church in Novgorod, he headed embassies, oversaw certain court cases of a secular nature, and carried out other secular tasks. However, the archbishops appear to have worked with the boyars to reach a consensus and almost never acted alone. The archbishop was not appointed, but elected by Novgorodians, and approved by the Metropolitan bishop of Russia.^[27] The archbishops were probably the richest single land-owners in Novgorod, and they also made money off court fees, fees for the use of weights and measures in the marketplace, and through other means.^[29][30]

Veche and posadnik[edit]

Another important executive was the Novgorod Posadnik, who chaired the veche, co-chaired courts together with the Prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the Prince’s major decisions had to be approved by the Posadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of one Posadnik, the Veche began electing six. These six posadniks kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves a chief Stepennoy Posadnik. Posadniks were almost invariably members of boyars – the city’s highest aristocracy.^[31] The precise makeup of the veche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated. The posadniks, tysiatskys, and even the bishops and archbishops of Novgorod^[32] were often elected or at least approved by the veche.^[33]

Tradespeople and craftsmen also participated in the political affairs of Novgorod the Great. The traditional scholarship argues that they were organized into five «kontsy» («ends» in Russian) – i.e., the boroughs of the city they lived in; each end was then organized by the streets in which they lived. The ends and streets often bore names indicating that certain trades were concentrated in certain parts of the city (there was a Carpenter’s End and a Potters’ End, for example). The merchants were organised into associations, of which the most famous were those of wax traders (called Ivan’s Hundred) and of the merchants engaged in overseas trade.^[34]

Like much of the rest of Novgorod’s medieval history, the precise composition of these organizations is uncertain. It is quite possible that the «ends» and «streets» were simply neighborhood administrative groups rather than guilds or «unions». Street organizations were known to build churches in their neighborhoods and to have buried the dead of their neighborhoods during outbreaks of the plague, but beyond that their activities are uncertain.

«Streets» and «ends» may have taken part in political decision-making in Novgorod in support of certain boyar factions or to protect their interests. Merchant «elders» are also noted in treaties and other charters, but only about a hundred of these charters exist. A half dozen date from the 12th century, while most are from after 1262. Thus it is difficult to determine Novgorod’s political structure due to the paucity of sources.^[35]

Prince[edit]

The prince, while his status in Novgorod was not inheritable and his power was much reduced, remained an important figure in Novgorodian life. Of around 100 princes of Novgorod, many, if not most, were invited in or dismissed by the Novgorodians. At least some of them signed a contract called a r’ad (ряд), which protected the interests of the Novgorodian boyars and laid out the prince’s rights and responsibilities. The r’ads that have been preserved in archives describe the relationship of Novgorod with twelve invited Princes: five of them from Tver’, four from Moscow, and three from Lithuania.^[36]

First and foremost among the prince’s functions, he was a military leader. He also patronized churches in the city and held court, although it was often presided over by his namestnik or lieutenant when he was personally absent from the city. The posadnik had always to be present in the court and no court decision could be made without his approval. Also, without the posadnik’s approval the prince could neither give out Novgorod lands nor issue laws.^[37] Besides, the prince could not own land in Novgorod and could not himself collect taxes from the Novgorod lands. He lived from money given to him by the city.^[27]

According to several r’ads, the prince could not extradite or prosecute a Novgorodian outside of the Novgorodian Land.^[38] The princes had two residences, one on the Marketplace (called Yaroslav’s Court, after Yaroslav the Wise), and another (Городище / Riurkovo Gorodische) several miles south of the Market Side of the city.

Administrative division[edit]

The administrative division of Novgorod Republic is not definitely known; the country was divided into several tysyachas (in the core lands of the country) and volosts (lands in the east and north that were being colonised or just paid tribute). The city of Novgorod and its vicinity, as well as a few other towns, were not part of any of those. Pskov achieved autonomy from Novgorod in the 13th century; its independence was confirmed by the Treaty of Bolotovo in 1348. Several other towns had special status as they were owned jointly by Novgorod and one of the neighbouring states.

Economy[edit]

The economy of the Novgorodian Republic included farming and animal husbandry (e.g., the archbishops of Novgorod and others raised horses for the Novgorodian army), while hunting, beekeeping, and fishing were also widespread. In most of the regions of the republic, these different «industries» were combined with farming. Iron was mined on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Staraya Russa and other localities were known for their saltworks. Flax and hop cultivation were also of significant importance. Countryside products, such as furs, beeswax, honey, fish, lard, flax, and hops, were sold on the market and exported to other Russian cities or abroad.

The real wealth of Novgorod, however, came from the fur trade. The city was the main entrepôt for trade between Rus’ and northwestern Europe. It stood on the northwestern end of the Silk Road from China^{[citation needed]} and at the eastern end of the Baltic trade network established by the Hanseatic League. From Novgorod’s northeastern lands («The Lands Beyond the Portages» as they were called in the chronicles), the area stretching north of Lakes Ladoga and Onega up to the White Sea and east to the Ural Mountains^[39] had so much fur that medieval travel accounts tell of furry animals raining from the sky.^[40] The Novgorodian merchants traded with Swedish, German, and Danish cities. In early years, the Novgorodians sailed the Baltic themselves (several incidents involving Novgorodian merchants in Gotland and Denmark are reported in the Novgorodian First Chronicle). Orthodox churches for Novgorodian merchants have been excavated on Gotland. Likewise, merchants from Gotland had their own St. Olaf church and trading house in Novgorod. However the Hanseatic League disputed the right of the Novgorod merchants to carry out sea trade independently and to deliver cargoes to the West-European ports by their own ships. Silver, cloth, wine and herring were imported from Western Europe.^[34]

Foreign coins and silver were used as a currency before Novgorod started minting its own novgorodka coins in 1420.^[41][42]

Society[edit]

More than a half of all Novgorodian privately owned lands had been concentrated in the hands of some 30–40 noble boyar families by the 14th–15th century. These vast estates served as material resources, which secured political supremacy of the boyars. The House of Holy Wisdom (Дом святой Софии, Dom Svyatoy Sofiy) — the main ecclesiastic establishment of Novgorod — was their chief rival in terms of landownership. Its votchinas were located in the most economically developed regions of the Novgorod Land. The Yuriev Monastery, Arkazhsky Monastery, Antoniev Monastery and some other privileged monasteries are known to have been big landowners. There were also the so-called zhityi lyudi (житьи люди), who owned less land than the boyars, and unprivileged small votchina owners called svoyezemtsy (своеземцы, or private landowners). The most common form of labor exploitation — the system of metayage — was typical for the afore-mentioned categories of landowners. Their household economies were mostly serviced by slaves (kholopy), whose number had been constantly decreasing. Along with the metayage, monetary payments also gained significant importance by the 2nd half of the 15th century.

Some scholars argue that the feudal lords tried to legally tie down the peasants to their land. Certain categories of feudally dependent peasants, such as davniye lyudi (давние люди), polovniki (половники), poruchniki (поручники), dolzhniki (должники), were deprived of the right to leave their masters. The boyars and monasteries also tried to restrict other categories of peasants from switching their feudal lords. However, until the late 16th century peasants could leave their land in the weeks preceding and coming after St. George’s day in the autumn.

Marxist scholars (e.g., Aleksandr Khoroshev) often spoke of class struggle in Novgorod. There were some 80 major uprisings in the republic, which often turned into armed rebellions. The most notable among these took place in 1136, 1207, 1228–29, 1270, 1418, and 1446–47. The extent to which these were based on «class struggle» is unclear. Many were between various boyar factions or, if a revolt did involve the peasants or tradesmen against the boyars, it did not consist of the peasants wanting to overthrow the existing social order, but was more often than not a demand for better rule on the part of the ruling class. There did not seem to be a sense that the office of prince should be abolished or that the peasants should be allowed to run the city.

Throughout the republican period, the archbishop of Novgorod was the head of the Orthodox church. The Finnic population of the Novgorod land was undergoing Christianisation. The sect of Strigolniki spread to Novgorod from Pskov in the middle of 14th century, its members renouncing ecclesiastic hierarchy, monasticism and sacraments of priesthood, communion, repentance and baptism. Another sect, called the heresy of the Judaizers by its opponents appeared in Novgorod in the second half of 15th century and subsequently enjoyed support at the court in Moscow.

Military[edit]

Similar to other medieval Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince’s retinue (druzhina).^[43] While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality the number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominent boyars, as well as the garrisons of fortresses.^[44] Firearms were first mentioned in 1394^[45] and in the 15th century fortress artillery was used^[46] and cannons were installed on ships.^[47]

Foreign relations[edit]

During the era of Kievan Rus’, Novgorod was a trade hub at the northern end of both the Volga trade route and the «route from the Varangians to the Greeks» along the Dnieper river system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The merchants of Gotland retained the Gothic Court trading house well into the 12th century. Later German merchantmen also established tradinghouses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses.

Hansa, Sweden and Livonian Order[edit]

After the great schism, Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Swedish, Danish, and German crusaders. During the Swedish–Novgorodian Wars, the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlier paid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer the Baltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The German knights, along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks in 1240–1242. Novgorodian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in the Battle of the Neva in 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after the Battle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of the castle of Vyborg in 1293 the Swedes gained a foothold in Karelia. On August 12, 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg, regulating their border for the first time.

Mongol invasion and its aftermath[edit]

The Novgorod Republic was saved from the direct impact of the Mongol invasion as it was the only Rus principality that was never conquered by the Mongol troops.^[48] In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish a number of town officials (by cutting off their noses) for defying him as Grand Prince of Vladimir (soon to be the khan’s tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords. In the 14th century, raids by Novgorod pirates, or ushkuiniki,^[49] sowed fear as far as Kazan and Astrakhan, assisting Novgorod in wars with Muscovy.

Culture[edit]

Art and iconography[edit]

The Republic of Novgorod was famous for its high level of culture in relation to other Russian duchies like Suzdal. A great majority of the most important Eastern artwork of the period came from this city. Citizens of Novgorod were producing large quantities of art, more specifically, religious icons. This high level of artistic production was due to the flourishing economy. Not only would prominent boyar families commission the creation of icons, but artists also had the backing of wealthy merchants and members of the strong artisan class.^[50] Icons became so prominent in Novgorod that by the end of the 13th century a citizen did not have to be particularly rich to buy one; in fact, icons were often produced as exports as well as for churches and homes.^[51] However, scholars today have managed to find and preserve only a small, random assortment of icons made from the 12th century to the 14th century in Novgorod.^[51]

The icons that do remain show a mixture of traditional Rus style, Palaeologus-Byzantine style (prominent previously in Kiev), and European Romanesque and Gothic style.^[52] The artists of Novgorod, and their audience, favored saints who provided protection mostly related to the economy. The Prophet Elijah was the lord of thunder who provided rain for the peasants’ fields. Saint George, Saint Blaise, and Saints Florus and Laurus all provided some manner of protection over the fields or the animals and herds of the peasants. Saint Paraskeva Pyatnitsa and Saint Anastasia both protected trade and merchants. Saint Nicholas was the patron of carpenters and protected travelers and the suffering. Both Saint Nicholas and the Prophet Elijah also offer protection from fires. Fires were commonplace in the fields and on the streets of the city.^[53] Depictions of these saints retained popularity throughout the entire reign of the Republic. But in the beginning of the 14th century another icon became prominent in the city: the Virgin of Mercy. This icon commemorates the appearance of the Virgin Mary to Andrew Yurodivyi and Epifanii. During this appearance, Mary prays for humankind.^[54] The art movement of Novgorod was essentially destroyed by Moscow after 1478, when a more uniform method for iconography was established throughout Russia.^[55]

Architecture and city layout[edit]

The Volkhov River divided the Republic of Novgorod into two-halves. The commercial side of the city, which contained the main market, rested on one side of the Volkhov. The St. Sophia Cathedral and an ancient kremlin rested on the other side of the river.^[56] The cathedral and kremlin were surrounded by a solid ring of city walls, which included a bell tower. Novgorod was filled with and surrounded by churches and monasteries.^[57] The city was overcrowded because of its large population of 30,000 people. The wealthy (boyar families, artisans, and merchants) lived in large houses inside the city walls, and the poor used whatever space they could find.^[56] The streets were paved with wood and were accompanied by a wooden water-pipe system, a Byzantine invention to protect against fire.^[56]

The Byzantine style (famous for large domes) and the European Romanesque style influenced the architecture of Novgorod.^[58] A number of rich families commissioned churches and monasteries in the city. About 83 churches, almost all of which were built in stone, operated during this period.^[59] Two prominent styles of churches existed in the Republic of Novgorod. The first style consisted of a single apse with a slanted (lopastnyi) roof. This style was standard throughout Russia during this period. The second style, the Novgorodian style, consisted of three apses and had roofs with arched gables. This second style was prominent in the early years of the Republic of Novgorod and also in the last years of the Republic, when this style was revitalized to make a statement against the rising power of Moscow.^[60] The inside of the churches contained icons, woodcarvings, and church plates.^[61] The first known one-day votive church was built in Novgorod in 1390 to ward off a pandemic, several others were built in the city until mid-16th century. As they were built in one day, they were made of wood, small in size and simple in design.^[62][63]

Literature and literacy[edit]

Chronicles are the earliest kind of literature known to originate in Novgorod, the oldest one being the Novgorod First Chronicle. Other genres appear in the XIV and XV centuries: travel diaries (such as the account of Stefan the Novgorodian’s travel to Constantinople for trade purposes), legends about local posadniks, saints and Novgorod’s wars and victories.^[64] The events of many bylinas – traditional Russian oral epic poems – take place in Novgorod. Their protagonists include a merchant and adventurer Sadko and daredevil Vasily Buslayev.

Scholars generally believe that the Republic of Novgorod had an unusually high level of literacy for the time period. Archeologists found over one thousand birch-bark texts, all dating from the 11th to the 15th centuries, in towns dating back to the early Rus’. Roughly 950 of these texts were from Novgorod. Archeologists and scholars estimate that as much as 20,000 similar texts still remain in the ground and many more burned down during numerous fires.^[65]

Novgorod citizens from all class levels, from boyars to peasants and artisans to merchants, participated in writing these texts. Even women wrote a significant amount of the manuscripts.^[65] This collection of birch-bark texts consists of religious documents, writings from the city’s archbishops, business messages from all classes, and travelogues, especially of religious pilgrimages. The citizens of Novgorod wrote in a realistic and businesslike fashion. In addition to the birch-bark texts, archeologists also found the oldest surviving Russian manuscript in Novgorod: three wax tablets with Psalms 67, 75, and 76, dating from the first quarter of the 11th century.^[66]

See also[edit]

• Pskov Republic

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus’
• Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)
• List of Slavic studies journals

Coordinates: 50°27′00″N 30°31′00″E / 50.4500°N 30.5167°E

Novgorod Republic Новгородскаѧ землѧ (Old East Slavic)
1136–1478
Flag (c. 1385) Coat of arms (c. 1385)
Sign on Novgorod’s seal (1426):
The Novgorod Republic c. 1400
Capital	Novgorod
Common languages	Official languages: Old Church Slavonic Unofficial languages: Old Novgorod dialect, Old East Slavic, Finnic languages
Religion	Eastern Orthodoxy
Government	Mixed republic
Prince
• 1136–1138 (first)	Sviatoslav Olgovich
• 1462–1478 (last)	Ivan III
History
• Established	1136
• Disestablished	1478
Preceded by Succeeded by Kievan Rus’ Pskov Republic Grand Duchy of Moscow Principality of Great Perm
Today part of	Russia

The Novgorod Republic was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east, including the city of Novgorod and the Lake Ladoga regions of modern Russia. The Republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League and its Slavic, Baltic and Finnic people were much influenced by the culture of the Viking-Varangians and Byzantine people.^[1]

Name[edit]

The state was called «Novgorod» and «Novgorod the Great» (Veliky Novgorod, Russian: Великий Новгород) with the form «Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great» (Gosudar Gospodin Veliky Novgorod, Russian: Государь Господин Великий Новгород) becoming common in the 15th century. Novgorod Land and Novgorod volost’ usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod. Novgorod Republic itself is a much later term,^[2] although the polity was described as a republic as early as in the beginning of the 16th century.^[3][4] The Soviet historians frequently used the terms Novgorod Feudal Republic and Novgorod Boyar Republic.^[5]

History[edit]

Novgorod was populated by various Slavic, Finnic and Baltic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy. However, these tribes came together during the beginning of the 9th century to try to form a negotiated settlement to end military aggression amongst each other.^[6] The Novgorod First Chronicle, a collection of writings depicting the history of Novgorod from 1016 to 1471, states that these tribes wanted to «Seek a prince who may rule over us and judge us according to law.»^[7] Novgorodian Rus’ and its inhabitants were much influenced by the Viking culture and people.^[8]

Novgorod Republic[edit]

From the late 11th century Novgorodians asserted greater control over the determination of their rules and rejected a politically dependent relationship to Kiev.^[9]

Among the Rus, the Novgorodians were the first to reach the regions between the Arctic Ocean and Lake Onega. Even though there is no definitive account of the precise timing of their arrival at the northern rivers that flowed into the Arctic, there are chronicles which mention that one expedition reached the Pechora River in 1032, and trading was established as early as in 1096 with the Yugra tribe.^[10]

Chronicles also stated that the Novgorodians paid tribute to the Prince of Kiev by 1113. Some time after this, the administration of the principality seemed to have matured. The Novgorod tysiatskii and posadniki appointed boyars from the cities and collected revenues for administration in the territories it held. A charter from the 1130s mentioned 30 administrative posts in Novgorod territory, where revenues were collected regularly and sent as a tithe to the Novgorod bishop. Throughout the 12th century, Novgorod utilized the Baltic-Volga-Caspian trade route, not only for trading but also for bringing food from the fertile Oka region to their city.^[10]

Rostov-Suzdal comprised the territory of the important Oka region and lands along the vital Sheksna River. This river lay in the Northern Volga tributary region. Whomever controlled the river was able to block food supplies causing a famine in Novgorod. Perhaps due to these fears, Novgorod led a failed invasion of Suzdal in 1134. They tried again and succeeded in 1149. Alternatively, Novgorod, in a bid to appease Suzdal, accepted some Suzdalians as rulers of Novgorod. Despite these events, Suzdal still blocked off trade to Novgorod twice and intercepted Novgorod’s tributes.^[10]

In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich and over the next century and a half were able to invite in and dismiss a number of princes. However, these invitations or dismissals were often based on who was the dominant prince in Rus’ at the time, and not on any independent thinking on the part of Novgorod.^[11]

The city of Pskov, initially part of Novgorod Land, had de facto independence from as early as the 13th century after opening a trading post for merchants of the Hanseatic League. Several princes such as Vsevolod Mstislavich (before 1117–1138) and Dovmont (c. 1240–1299) reigned in Pskov without any deference to, or consultation with, the prince or other officials in Novgorod. The independence of the Pskov Republic was acknowledged in the 1348 Treaty of Bolotovo. However, the Archbishop of Novgorod continued to head the church in Pskov and kept the title «Archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Pskov» until 1589. The Republic was the subject of political rivalry between Poland and Lithuania on one side and the Grand Duchy of Moscow on the other side in the 14th and 15th centuries.

In the 12th–15th centuries, the Novgorodian Republic expanded east and northeast. The Novgorodians explored the areas around Lake Onega, along the Northern Dvina, and coastlines of the White Sea. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Novgorodians explored the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, and the West-Siberian river Ob. The lands to the north of the city, rich with fur, sea fauna and salt among others were of great economic importance to the Novgorodians, who fought a protracted series of wars with Moscow beginning in the late 14th century in order to keep these lands. Losing them meant economic and cultural decline for the city and its inhabitants. Indeed, the ultimate failure of the Novgorodians to win these wars led to the downfall of the Novgorod Republic.^{[citation needed]}

Fall of the Republic[edit]

Tver, Muscovy, and Lithuania fought over control of Novgorod and its enormous wealth from the 14th century. Upon becoming the Grand Prince of Vladimir, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver sent his governors to Novgorod. A series of disagreements with Mikhail pushed Novgorod towards closer ties with Muscovy during the reign of Grand Prince George. In part, Tver’s proximity (the Tver Principality is contiguous with the Novgorodian Land) threatened Novgorod. It was feared that a Tverite prince would annex Novgorodian lands and thus weaken the Republic. At the time, though, Muscovy did not border Novgorod, and since the Muscovite princes were further afield, they were more acceptable as princes of Novgorod. They could come to Novgorod’s aid when needed but would be too far away to meddle too much in the Republic’s affairs.

As Muscovy grew in strength, however, the Muscovite princes became a serious threat to Novgorod. Ivan Kalita, Simeon the Proud and other Muscovite monarchs sought to limit Novgorod’s independence. In 1397, a critical conflict took place between Muscovy and Novgorod, when Moscow annexed the Dvina Lands along the course of the Northern Dvina. These lands were crucial to Novgorod’s well-being since much of the city’s furs came from there.^[12][13] This territory was returned to Novgorod the following year.

Resisting the Muscovite oppression, the government of Novgorod sought an alliance with Poland–Lithuania. Most Novgorodian boyars wished to maintain the Republic’s independence since if Novgorod were to be conquered, the boyars’ wealth would flow to the grand prince and his Muscovite boyars, and the Novgorodians would fall into decline. Most of them didn’t earn enough to pay for war.^[14] According to tradition, Marfa Boretskaya, the wife of Posadnik Isak Boretskii, was the main proponent of an alliance with Poland-Lithuania to save the Republic.

According to this legend, Boretskaya invited the Lithuanian princeling Mikhail Olelkovich and asked him to become her husband and the ruler of Novgorod. She also concluded an alliance with Casimir, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. The prospects of changing allegiance in favor of the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania caused a major commotion among the commoners. Janet Martin and Gail Lenhoff have recently argued that Boretskaya was scapegoated, probably by Archbishop Feofil (r. 1470–1480) in order to shift the blame from him for his betrayal of the terms of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy, which forbade Novgorod from conducting foreign affairs without grand princely approval.^[15]

While the extent of Boretskaya’s role in the Lithuanian party is probably exaggerated, Novgorod did indeed try to turn to the King of Poland. A draft treaty, allegedly found among the loot after the Battle of Shelon River, was drawn up between Casimir and the Novgorodians.^[16]

Muscovite authorities saw Novgorod’s behavior as a repudiation of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy and went to war against the city. The army of Moscow won a decisive victory in the Battle of Shelon River on July 1471, which severely limited Novgorod’s freedom to act thereafter, although the city maintained its formal independence for the next seven years. In 1478, Ivan III sent his army to take the city. He destroyed the veche, tore down the Veche bell, the ancient symbol of participatory governance, civil society, and legal rights, and destroyed the library and archives, thus ending the independence of Novgorod.^[17] After the takeover, Ivan took 81.7% of Novgorod’s land, half for himself and the rest for his allies.^[18] The Novgorod Chronicle which had been critical of Ivan III before the fall of Novgorod thus described the conquest in its aftermath, justifying it on the grounds of purported conversion of Novgorodians to the Catholic faith:^[19]

Thus did Great Prince Ivan advance with all his host against his domain of Novgorod because of the rebellious spirit of its people, their pride and conversion to Latinism. With a great and overwhelming force did he occupy the entire territory of Novgorod from frontier to frontier, inflicting on every part of it the dread powers of his fire and sword.

Government[edit]

The city state of Novgorod had developed procedures of governance that held a large measure of democratic participation far in advance of the rest of Europe^[20] but that share several similarities with the democratic traditions of Scandinavian peasant republics. The people had the power to elect city officials and they even had the power to elect and fire the prince. The Chronicle writer then goes on to describe a «town meeting» where these decisions would have been made, which included people from all social classes ranging from the Posadniki (Burgomaster), to the Chernye Liudi (literally, the black folks) or the lowest free class.^[21][22] The precise constitution of the medieval Novgorodian Republic is uncertain, although traditional histories have created the image of a highly institutionalized network of veches (public assemblies) and a government of posadniks (burgomaster), tysyatskys («thousandmen,» originally the head of the town militia, but later a judicial and commercial official), other members of aristocratic families, and the archbishops of Novgorod.

Novgorod was called a republic by Sigismund von Herberstein in his Notes on Muscovite Affairs written at least half a century after the conquest of Novgorod.^[3]

Soviet-era Marxist scholarship frequently described the political system of Novgorod as a «feudal republic», placing it within the Marxist historiographic periodization (slavery – feudalism – capitalism – socialism – communism).^[23][24] Many scholars today, however, question whether Russia ever really had a feudal political system parallel to that of the medieval West.^{[citation needed]}

Archbishop[edit]

Some scholars argue that the archbishop was the head of the executive branch of the government, although it is difficult to determine the exact competence of the various officials. It is possible that there was a «Council of Lords» (Совет Господ) that was headed by the archbishop and met in the archiepiscopal palace (and in the Chamber of Facets after 1433).^[25][26]

The (at least nominal) executives of Novgorod were always the Princes of Novgorod, invited by Novgorodians from the neighboring states, even though their power waned in the 13th and early 14th centuries.^[27][28] It is unclear if the archbishop of Novgorod was the real head of state or chief executive of the Novgorod Republic, but in any case he remained an important town official. In addition to overseeing the church in Novgorod, he headed embassies, oversaw certain court cases of a secular nature, and carried out other secular tasks. However, the archbishops appear to have worked with the boyars to reach a consensus and almost never acted alone. The archbishop was not appointed, but elected by Novgorodians, and approved by the Metropolitan bishop of Russia.^[27] The archbishops were probably the richest single land-owners in Novgorod, and they also made money off court fees, fees for the use of weights and measures in the marketplace, and through other means.^[29][30]

Veche and posadnik[edit]

Another important executive was the Novgorod Posadnik, who chaired the veche, co-chaired courts together with the Prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the Prince’s major decisions had to be approved by the Posadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of one Posadnik, the Veche began electing six. These six posadniks kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves a chief Stepennoy Posadnik. Posadniks were almost invariably members of boyars – the city’s highest aristocracy.^[31] The precise makeup of the veche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated. The posadniks, tysiatskys, and even the bishops and archbishops of Novgorod^[32] were often elected or at least approved by the veche.^[33]

Tradespeople and craftsmen also participated in the political affairs of Novgorod the Great. The traditional scholarship argues that they were organized into five «kontsy» («ends» in Russian) – i.e., the boroughs of the city they lived in; each end was then organized by the streets in which they lived. The ends and streets often bore names indicating that certain trades were concentrated in certain parts of the city (there was a Carpenter’s End and a Potters’ End, for example). The merchants were organised into associations, of which the most famous were those of wax traders (called Ivan’s Hundred) and of the merchants engaged in overseas trade.^[34]

Like much of the rest of Novgorod’s medieval history, the precise composition of these organizations is uncertain. It is quite possible that the «ends» and «streets» were simply neighborhood administrative groups rather than guilds or «unions». Street organizations were known to build churches in their neighborhoods and to have buried the dead of their neighborhoods during outbreaks of the plague, but beyond that their activities are uncertain.

«Streets» and «ends» may have taken part in political decision-making in Novgorod in support of certain boyar factions or to protect their interests. Merchant «elders» are also noted in treaties and other charters, but only about a hundred of these charters exist. A half dozen date from the 12th century, while most are from after 1262. Thus it is difficult to determine Novgorod’s political structure due to the paucity of sources.^[35]

Prince[edit]

The prince, while his status in Novgorod was not inheritable and his power was much reduced, remained an important figure in Novgorodian life. Of around 100 princes of Novgorod, many, if not most, were invited in or dismissed by the Novgorodians. At least some of them signed a contract called a r’ad (ряд), which protected the interests of the Novgorodian boyars and laid out the prince’s rights and responsibilities. The r’ads that have been preserved in archives describe the relationship of Novgorod with twelve invited Princes: five of them from Tver’, four from Moscow, and three from Lithuania.^[36]

First and foremost among the prince’s functions, he was a military leader. He also patronized churches in the city and held court, although it was often presided over by his namestnik or lieutenant when he was personally absent from the city. The posadnik had always to be present in the court and no court decision could be made without his approval. Also, without the posadnik’s approval the prince could neither give out Novgorod lands nor issue laws.^[37] Besides, the prince could not own land in Novgorod and could not himself collect taxes from the Novgorod lands. He lived from money given to him by the city.^[27]

According to several r’ads, the prince could not extradite or prosecute a Novgorodian outside of the Novgorodian Land.^[38] The princes had two residences, one on the Marketplace (called Yaroslav’s Court, after Yaroslav the Wise), and another (Городище / Riurkovo Gorodische) several miles south of the Market Side of the city.

Administrative division[edit]

The administrative division of Novgorod Republic is not definitely known; the country was divided into several tysyachas (in the core lands of the country) and volosts (lands in the east and north that were being colonised or just paid tribute). The city of Novgorod and its vicinity, as well as a few other towns, were not part of any of those. Pskov achieved autonomy from Novgorod in the 13th century; its independence was confirmed by the Treaty of Bolotovo in 1348. Several other towns had special status as they were owned jointly by Novgorod and one of the neighbouring states.

Economy[edit]

The economy of the Novgorodian Republic included farming and animal husbandry (e.g., the archbishops of Novgorod and others raised horses for the Novgorodian army), while hunting, beekeeping, and fishing were also widespread. In most of the regions of the republic, these different «industries» were combined with farming. Iron was mined on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Staraya Russa and other localities were known for their saltworks. Flax and hop cultivation were also of significant importance. Countryside products, such as furs, beeswax, honey, fish, lard, flax, and hops, were sold on the market and exported to other Russian cities or abroad.

The real wealth of Novgorod, however, came from the fur trade. The city was the main entrepôt for trade between Rus’ and northwestern Europe. It stood on the northwestern end of the Silk Road from China^{[citation needed]} and at the eastern end of the Baltic trade network established by the Hanseatic League. From Novgorod’s northeastern lands («The Lands Beyond the Portages» as they were called in the chronicles), the area stretching north of Lakes Ladoga and Onega up to the White Sea and east to the Ural Mountains^[39] had so much fur that medieval travel accounts tell of furry animals raining from the sky.^[40] The Novgorodian merchants traded with Swedish, German, and Danish cities. In early years, the Novgorodians sailed the Baltic themselves (several incidents involving Novgorodian merchants in Gotland and Denmark are reported in the Novgorodian First Chronicle). Orthodox churches for Novgorodian merchants have been excavated on Gotland. Likewise, merchants from Gotland had their own St. Olaf church and trading house in Novgorod. However the Hanseatic League disputed the right of the Novgorod merchants to carry out sea trade independently and to deliver cargoes to the West-European ports by their own ships. Silver, cloth, wine and herring were imported from Western Europe.^[34]

Foreign coins and silver were used as a currency before Novgorod started minting its own novgorodka coins in 1420.^[41][42]

Society[edit]

More than a half of all Novgorodian privately owned lands had been concentrated in the hands of some 30–40 noble boyar families by the 14th–15th century. These vast estates served as material resources, which secured political supremacy of the boyars. The House of Holy Wisdom (Дом святой Софии, Dom Svyatoy Sofiy) — the main ecclesiastic establishment of Novgorod — was their chief rival in terms of landownership. Its votchinas were located in the most economically developed regions of the Novgorod Land. The Yuriev Monastery, Arkazhsky Monastery, Antoniev Monastery and some other privileged monasteries are known to have been big landowners. There were also the so-called zhityi lyudi (житьи люди), who owned less land than the boyars, and unprivileged small votchina owners called svoyezemtsy (своеземцы, or private landowners). The most common form of labor exploitation — the system of metayage — was typical for the afore-mentioned categories of landowners. Their household economies were mostly serviced by slaves (kholopy), whose number had been constantly decreasing. Along with the metayage, monetary payments also gained significant importance by the 2nd half of the 15th century.

Some scholars argue that the feudal lords tried to legally tie down the peasants to their land. Certain categories of feudally dependent peasants, such as davniye lyudi (давние люди), polovniki (половники), poruchniki (поручники), dolzhniki (должники), were deprived of the right to leave their masters. The boyars and monasteries also tried to restrict other categories of peasants from switching their feudal lords. However, until the late 16th century peasants could leave their land in the weeks preceding and coming after St. George’s day in the autumn.

Marxist scholars (e.g., Aleksandr Khoroshev) often spoke of class struggle in Novgorod. There were some 80 major uprisings in the republic, which often turned into armed rebellions. The most notable among these took place in 1136, 1207, 1228–29, 1270, 1418, and 1446–47. The extent to which these were based on «class struggle» is unclear. Many were between various boyar factions or, if a revolt did involve the peasants or tradesmen against the boyars, it did not consist of the peasants wanting to overthrow the existing social order, but was more often than not a demand for better rule on the part of the ruling class. There did not seem to be a sense that the office of prince should be abolished or that the peasants should be allowed to run the city.

Throughout the republican period, the archbishop of Novgorod was the head of the Orthodox church. The Finnic population of the Novgorod land was undergoing Christianisation. The sect of Strigolniki spread to Novgorod from Pskov in the middle of 14th century, its members renouncing ecclesiastic hierarchy, monasticism and sacraments of priesthood, communion, repentance and baptism. Another sect, called the heresy of the Judaizers by its opponents appeared in Novgorod in the second half of 15th century and subsequently enjoyed support at the court in Moscow.

Military[edit]

Similar to other medieval Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince’s retinue (druzhina).^[43] While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality the number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominent boyars, as well as the garrisons of fortresses.^[44] Firearms were first mentioned in 1394^[45] and in the 15th century fortress artillery was used^[46] and cannons were installed on ships.^[47]

Foreign relations[edit]

During the era of Kievan Rus’, Novgorod was a trade hub at the northern end of both the Volga trade route and the «route from the Varangians to the Greeks» along the Dnieper river system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The merchants of Gotland retained the Gothic Court trading house well into the 12th century. Later German merchantmen also established tradinghouses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses.

Hansa, Sweden and Livonian Order[edit]

After the great schism, Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Swedish, Danish, and German crusaders. During the Swedish–Novgorodian Wars, the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlier paid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer the Baltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The German knights, along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks in 1240–1242. Novgorodian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in the Battle of the Neva in 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after the Battle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of the castle of Vyborg in 1293 the Swedes gained a foothold in Karelia. On August 12, 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg, regulating their border for the first time.

Mongol invasion and its aftermath[edit]

The Novgorod Republic was saved from the direct impact of the Mongol invasion as it was the only Rus principality that was never conquered by the Mongol troops.^[48] In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish a number of town officials (by cutting off their noses) for defying him as Grand Prince of Vladimir (soon to be the khan’s tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords. In the 14th century, raids by Novgorod pirates, or ushkuiniki,^[49] sowed fear as far as Kazan and Astrakhan, assisting Novgorod in wars with Muscovy.

Culture[edit]

Art and iconography[edit]

The Republic of Novgorod was famous for its high level of culture in relation to other Russian duchies like Suzdal. A great majority of the most important Eastern artwork of the period came from this city. Citizens of Novgorod were producing large quantities of art, more specifically, religious icons. This high level of artistic production was due to the flourishing economy. Not only would prominent boyar families commission the creation of icons, but artists also had the backing of wealthy merchants and members of the strong artisan class.^[50] Icons became so prominent in Novgorod that by the end of the 13th century a citizen did not have to be particularly rich to buy one; in fact, icons were often produced as exports as well as for churches and homes.^[51] However, scholars today have managed to find and preserve only a small, random assortment of icons made from the 12th century to the 14th century in Novgorod.^[51]

The icons that do remain show a mixture of traditional Rus style, Palaeologus-Byzantine style (prominent previously in Kiev), and European Romanesque and Gothic style.^[52] The artists of Novgorod, and their audience, favored saints who provided protection mostly related to the economy. The Prophet Elijah was the lord of thunder who provided rain for the peasants’ fields. Saint George, Saint Blaise, and Saints Florus and Laurus all provided some manner of protection over the fields or the animals and herds of the peasants. Saint Paraskeva Pyatnitsa and Saint Anastasia both protected trade and merchants. Saint Nicholas was the patron of carpenters and protected travelers and the suffering. Both Saint Nicholas and the Prophet Elijah also offer protection from fires. Fires were commonplace in the fields and on the streets of the city.^[53] Depictions of these saints retained popularity throughout the entire reign of the Republic. But in the beginning of the 14th century another icon became prominent in the city: the Virgin of Mercy. This icon commemorates the appearance of the Virgin Mary to Andrew Yurodivyi and Epifanii. During this appearance, Mary prays for humankind.^[54] The art movement of Novgorod was essentially destroyed by Moscow after 1478, when a more uniform method for iconography was established throughout Russia.^[55]

Architecture and city layout[edit]

The Volkhov River divided the Republic of Novgorod into two-halves. The commercial side of the city, which contained the main market, rested on one side of the Volkhov. The St. Sophia Cathedral and an ancient kremlin rested on the other side of the river.^[56] The cathedral and kremlin were surrounded by a solid ring of city walls, which included a bell tower. Novgorod was filled with and surrounded by churches and monasteries.^[57] The city was overcrowded because of its large population of 30,000 people. The wealthy (boyar families, artisans, and merchants) lived in large houses inside the city walls, and the poor used whatever space they could find.^[56] The streets were paved with wood and were accompanied by a wooden water-pipe system, a Byzantine invention to protect against fire.^[56]

The Byzantine style (famous for large domes) and the European Romanesque style influenced the architecture of Novgorod.^[58] A number of rich families commissioned churches and monasteries in the city. About 83 churches, almost all of which were built in stone, operated during this period.^[59] Two prominent styles of churches existed in the Republic of Novgorod. The first style consisted of a single apse with a slanted (lopastnyi) roof. This style was standard throughout Russia during this period. The second style, the Novgorodian style, consisted of three apses and had roofs with arched gables. This second style was prominent in the early years of the Republic of Novgorod and also in the last years of the Republic, when this style was revitalized to make a statement against the rising power of Moscow.^[60] The inside of the churches contained icons, woodcarvings, and church plates.^[61] The first known one-day votive church was built in Novgorod in 1390 to ward off a pandemic, several others were built in the city until mid-16th century. As they were built in one day, they were made of wood, small in size and simple in design.^[62][63]

Literature and literacy[edit]

Chronicles are the earliest kind of literature known to originate in Novgorod, the oldest one being the Novgorod First Chronicle. Other genres appear in the XIV and XV centuries: travel diaries (such as the account of Stefan the Novgorodian’s travel to Constantinople for trade purposes), legends about local posadniks, saints and Novgorod’s wars and victories.^[64] The events of many bylinas – traditional Russian oral epic poems – take place in Novgorod. Their protagonists include a merchant and adventurer Sadko and daredevil Vasily Buslayev.

Scholars generally believe that the Republic of Novgorod had an unusually high level of literacy for the time period. Archeologists found over one thousand birch-bark texts, all dating from the 11th to the 15th centuries, in towns dating back to the early Rus’. Roughly 950 of these texts were from Novgorod. Archeologists and scholars estimate that as much as 20,000 similar texts still remain in the ground and many more burned down during numerous fires.^[65]

Novgorod citizens from all class levels, from boyars to peasants and artisans to merchants, participated in writing these texts. Even women wrote a significant amount of the manuscripts.^[65] This collection of birch-bark texts consists of religious documents, writings from the city’s archbishops, business messages from all classes, and travelogues, especially of religious pilgrimages. The citizens of Novgorod wrote in a realistic and businesslike fashion. In addition to the birch-bark texts, archeologists also found the oldest surviving Russian manuscript in Novgorod: three wax tablets with Psalms 67, 75, and 76, dating from the first quarter of the 11th century.^[66]

See also[edit]

• Pskov Republic

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus’
• Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)
• List of Slavic studies journals

Coordinates: 50°27′00″N 30°31′00″E / 50.4500°N 30.5167°E

слово российский пишется с большой буквы или с маленькой?

российской — с маленькой, а Украинский с большой, так как украинцы письменность придумали

раньше с большой тяпережды тока с маааааленькой….

Слово русский пишется с маленькой буквы как и слово русское.

С большой, если это главное что-то в России, а если другое-то с маленькой

Республики – все слова в названии. Например: Российская Федерация.
Некоторые названия высших законодательных, правительственных, профсоюзных учреждений Российской Федерации – все слова в названии. Например: Верховный Совет РФ, Российская Армия, Конституция Российской Федерации.
В стальных случаях-со строчной.

touch.otvet.mail.ru

Как правильно писать?(с заглавной или с маленькой буквы?)

Если речь идет о стране, то с заглавной, а если о малой родине, о родной стороне, то с маленькой. Например, Россия- моя Родина. Моя родина- Приморский край. То же относится и к другим словам.

каждый для себя выбирате. я с большой пишу

По-моему все это должны писать с большой буквы, так же как и национальность Русский!

это зависит от контекста….

Отечество, родина или Родина (смотря какую родину ты имеешь введу, если родина, типо твой городишка, тос маленькой, а если Родина, там Россия или что там, тогда с большой, насчет отечества не знаю

Всё с большой! В знак уважения к Родине!

Есть так называемые АВТОРСКИЕ знаки препинания и написание со строчной или прописной буквы. В вашем случае — чем выше эмоциональный накал, тем больше буква. Я бы так защитила ваш вариант.

Зависит от смыла этих слов.

Каждый пишет по разному, я с заглавной

touch.otvet.mail.ru

государственная дума, президент российской федерации, исторический

Государственная Дума, президент Российской Федерации, исторический музей, Куликовская битва, Великая Отечественная война, Нобелевская премия, Лермонтовские чтения, Великий Новгород, Михайловский замок, Организация Объединённых Наций, Верховный суд, Большой театр, Большая медведица.
Удачи!!!

с большой пишется только Михайовский замок, Нобелевская премия, Лермонтовские чтения потому что они происходят от имен. А имена пишут с большой буквы.

Государственная дума, Президент Российской Федерации, исторический музей, Куликовская битва, Великая Отечественная война, Нобелевская премия, Лермонтовские чтения, Великий Новгород, Михайловский замок, Организация Объединённых Наций, Верховный суд, Большой театр, Большая Медведица

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Московская область пишется с большой или с маленькой буквы?

вы написали верно

Вот так напиши:
московская Область: )))…хееееееееееееееееееее….

мОсковская облость — вот!

область — с маленькой, Московская — с большой

С большей, это же название области!

Да пишите как писал писатель Шолохов просто и главное все понятно
предираются некоторые да хрен с ними А то иш Москва с большой а область че она
можно и с маленькой

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Словосочетание «Родная земля» пишется с большой или маленькой буквы пишется?

Стойкий Интеллект ®
6 (4719)

С маленькой если не в начале предложения

 
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С маленькой

 
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С какой буквы пишется держава? С маленькой или с большой

смотря какая держава. наша — с большой

Держава, страна, государство, пишется с маленькой буквы…

Если в не путать орфографию с политикой, то с маленькой…

Смешной вопрос. Обычно с маленькой буквы пишут. Но есть особые случаи, когда с большой. Например, М. А. Булгаков в романе «Белая гвардия» называет город Городом, потому что в это название он вложил особый смысл. Сейчас этого Города уже не существует, к сожалению…

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таможня пишется с большой буквы или с маленькой? надо в школу слово таможня в середине предложения

с маленькой в середине предложения

международных и российских высших органов власти, иных государственных органов:
Государственная дума, Федеральное собрание Российской Федерации, Конституционный суд, Генеральная прокуратура России, Государственный совет, Высший арбитражный суд Российской Федерации, Генеральная прокуратура Российской Федерации, Администрация Президента Российской Федерации, Верхняя палата Государственной думы, Совет по аграрной политике при Правительстве Российской Федерации, Консультационный совет по иностранным инвестициям в России, Экспертный совет при Правительстве Российской Федерации, Комиссия Правительства Российской Федерации по оперативным вопросам, Международный валютный фонд и т. д.
Примечания:
1. С прописной буквы пишется сокращенное название органов власти: Дума (ср. Государственная дума) , Прокуратура России (ср. Генеральная прокуратура России) .
2. Ранее в названиях высших государственных учреждений все слова писались с прописной буквы. В настоящее время по традиции с прописной буквы пишутся все слова в следующих названиях: Организация Объединенных Наций, Совет Безопасности, Общество Красного Креста и Красного Полумесяца.
3. В государственных официальных документах в таких названиях с прописной буквы пишутся все слова. Например: Федеральное Собрание РФ, Государственная Дума, Конституционный Суд РФ, Вооруженные Силы РФ, Правительство РФ.
центральных учреждений и общественных организаций, законодательных (представительных) органов государственной власти субъектов Российской Федерации, учреждений, организаций и фондов единичного характера:
Министерство иностранных дел, Министерство промышленности Российской Федерации, Гражданский воздушный флот, Федерация независимых профсоюзов России, Государственный комитет РФ по охране окружающей среды, Центральный банк РФ, Центральная избирательная комиссия Российской Федерации;
Законодательное собрание Республики Карелия, Дума Приморского края, Законодательное собрание Ивановской области, Мурманская областная дума;
Сберегательный банк Российской Федерации, Российский банк реконструкции и развития, Международный фонд поддержки молодежного предпринимательства, Пенсионный фонд, Фонд социального страхования и т. д.
Примечание. В форме множественного числа или в качестве несобственного имени названия указанного типа пишутся со строчной буквы: республиканские министерства, главные управления министерства. Но (при полном наименовании) : Министерства здравоохранения России и Белоруссии, федеральные суды, палаты Федерального собрания, комитеты, комиссии палат Федерального собрания.
международных и зарубежных центральных общественных и профессиональных организаций и государственных учреждений:
Всемирная федерация профсоюзов, Международный союз молодежи, Верховный суд США, Польский сейм, Национальное собрание Франции.
Примечание. Названия высших выборных учреждений зарубежных стран обычно пишутся со строчной буквы, например: парламент, нижняя палата, палата лордов, рейхстаг, бундесрат, сейм, стортинг, конгресс (сенат и палата представителей) США, меджлис. Но в исторической литературе некоторые названия аналогичных русских дореволюционных и зарубежных учреждений пишутся с прописной буквы: Государственная дума, Государственный совет, Конвент, Директория.
всех политических партий:
Партия экономической свободы, Крестьянская партия России, Демократическая партия России, Российская социал-демократическая партия, Индийский национальный конгресс.
Примечание. Некоторые названия партий, не носящие характера официального наименования, пишутся со строчной буквы, например: республиканская и демократическая партии в США, партия консерваторов в Англии, лейбористская партия, гоминьдан, дашнакцутюн, сейюкай, партия социалистов-революционеров, партия меньшевиков, партия кадетов.
учреждений и организаций местного значения, например:
Законодательное собрание Санкт-Петербурга, Администрация Санкт-Петербурга, Правительство Ленинградской области, Центральный округ г. Москвы, Государст

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Всего найдено: 21

Насколько я понимаю, должности «туркестанский генерал-губернатор», «новгородский губернатор» должны писаться со строчной. А как поступить в случае упоминания правителя Бухарского эмирата — «эмир бухарский / Бухарский»? Заранее благодарю.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Корректно: эмир бухарский, эмир Бухарского эмирата.

Здравствуйте! Есть ли такое слово: великославный? Спасибо!

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

В словарях современного русского языка найти слово великославный нам не удалось. Однако оно зафиксировано во втором выпуске «Словаря русского языка XI–XVII вв.» (М., 1975), а также встречается в Ветхом Завете (Третья книга Маккавейская, глава 6: Тогда великославный Вседержитель и истинный Бог, явив святое лице Свое, отверз небесные врата, из которых сошли два славных и страшных Ангела, видимые всем, кроме Иудеев) и в исторических сочинениях П. Н. Крекшина, новгородского дворянина, служившего при Петре Великом в Кронштадте («Экстракт из великославных дел кесарей вост. и зап. и из великославных дел имп. Петра Вел.», «Экстракт из великославных дел царей и вел. князей всероссийских с 862 по 1756 г.»). 

Мы, конечно, не можем признать слово великославный употребительным сейчас, в современном русском языке. Однако нельзя исключить, что в каких-то текстах (возможно, религиозной тематики) это прилагательное встречается. Значение его вполне понятно, так как образовано оно по существующей в современном русском языке модели (ср.: великославный – имеющий большую славу, известный, знаменитый и великодушный, великовозрастный). В древности таких слов было еще больше. Например, в «Словаре русского языка XI–XVII вв.» отмечены великоребрый, великосильный, великомышленный, великомудрый, великодушевный, великозвучный. 

Подобные двукорневые слова часто оказываются заимствованными в русский язык из старославянского, где они создавались специально для перевода греческих слов, состоящих из двух корней. Так, например, появилось прилагательное единородный (ср. с греч. monogeneses  от monos ‘единственный’ и geneses ‘рождение’). 

Здравствуйте. Почему слова «область» или «округ» в наименовании субъекта РФ пишется с маленькой буквы, а слово «Республика» — с большой? Например, Новгородская область и Республика Башкортостан. Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Области, края, округа – административно-территориальные единицы. Республики же в составе России – это национально-государственные образования (т. е. своего рода государства в государстве). Например, согласно Конституции России, республики вправе устанавливать свои государственные языки. Поэтому слова республика в составе названия республики пишется с большой буквы – на основании правила о написании с большой буквы всех слов в официальных названиях государств.

Как писать названия государств или территорий периода начала прошлого века типа: Кубанская народная республика, Литовско-Белорусская советская социалистическая республика и т. п.? Вроде бы они уже столетие как не существуют, и надо писать всё со строчной кроме первого слова, но с другой стороны есть аналоги типа Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика, Болгарская Народная Республика, которых тоже уже нет, только не столетие, а пару десятилетий.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Непростой вопрос. С одной стороны, в исторических (не существующих в настоящее время) названиях государств с большой буквы пишутся первое слово и входящие в состав названия имена собственные: Французское королевство, Неаполитанское королевство, Королевство обеих Сицилий; Римская империя, Византийская империя, Российская империя; Новгородская республика, Венецианская республика; Древнерусское государство, Великое государство Ляо и т. д.

С другой стороны, в названии Союз Советских Социалистических Республик все слова пишутся с большой буквы, хотя этого государства тоже уже не существует. Сохраняются прописные буквы и в названиях союзных республик, в исторических названиях стран соцлагеря: Польская Народная Республика, Народная Республика Болгария и т. д.

Историческая дистанция, безусловно, является здесь одним из ключевых факторов. Должно пройти какое-то время (не два–три десятилетия, а гораздо больше), для того чтобы появились основания писать Союз советских социалистических республик по аналогии с Российская империя.

Историческая дистанция вроде бы позволяет писать в приведенных Вами названиях государственных образований с большой буквы только первое слово (эти образования существовали непродолжительное время и исчезли уже почти 100 лет назад). Но, с другой стороны, прописная буква в каждом слове названия подчеркивает тот факт, что эти сочетания в свое время были официальными названиями государств (или претендовали на такой статус). Если автору текста важно обратить на это внимания читателя, он вправе оставить прописные буквы (даже несмотря на то, что таких государственных образований давно уже нет на карте).

Здравствуйте, подскажите, пожалуйста, в теме дипломной работы в конце нужно ставить 2 скобки или 1 «Разработка программы адаптации в организации (на примере ГУ ПФРФ в Демянском районе по Новгородской области (Межрайонное))»

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Лучше всего в этом случае для внутренних и внешних скобок использовать скобки разного рисунка – квадратные и круглые.

Доброго времени суток ))
Подскажите, как правильно называть жителей поселка Крестцы (Новгородская область). Ударение в слове на первую гласную — е. Спросил у них — не знают (((

Спасибо

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

В «Словаре названий жителей» И. Л. Городецкой и Е. А. Левашова: крестчАне и крещАне (крестчанин, крещанин и крестчанка, крещанка).

Добрый день, подскажите, пожалуйста, в каких случаях Республика пишется с заглавной буквы, а в каких с маленькой.
И склоняется ли Армения в словосочетании Республика Армения (Республики Армении или Республики Армения). Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Слово республика пишется с большой буквы, если оно входит в состав официальных названий государств: Китайская Народная Республика. В исторических названиях это слово пишется со строчной буквы, если оно не начинает собой название: Венецианская республика, Новгородская республика.

Названия республик женского рода обычно склоняются в сочетании со словом республика: из Республики Армении. Но в официальных текстах часто можно увидеть несклоняемый вариант.

Здравствуйте. Моя фамилия Кубрак. Постоянно возникают споры о её склонении. Традиционно наша семья настаивает на том чтобы при написании её не склоняли. Эта фамилия является нестандартной русской (новгородская) и правила русского языка не конкретизируют данный случай. Хотелось бы окончательно определиться склоняется она или нет. Спасибо!

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Ваша фамилия склоняется. Подробно см. в «Письмовнике».

Здравствуйте.
В словаре улиц Москвы, в названии Ильменского проезда стоит ударение на букве Е. В московском общественном транспорте также название остановки озвучивается как Ильме́нский проезд. Согласно справочнику «Имена Московских улиц» проезд назван по озеру И́льмень в Новгородской области, т.е. проезд должен называться И́льменский.

Мой вопрос в заключается в следующем: как же правильно произносится название проезда, куда падает ударение?

Заранее благодарю за ответ.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

С городскими географическими названиями такое иногда происходит: ударение в городском названии может отличаться от ударения в имени собственном, по которому это название было дано. Другие примеры см. в ответе на вопрос № 269990.

Добрый день, уважаемая «Грамота»!
Пожалуйста, ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1) Есть ли правило, унифицирующее написание названий древних государств, а также вариаций их названий? Ответ проиллюстрируйте на следующем примере (приведены вариации названия одного и того же государства).
а) Ф/франкская И/империя (Г/государство, Д/держава, К/королевство);
б) И/империя (Г/государство, Д/держава, К/королевство) Ф/франков;
в) К/каролингская И/империя (Г/государство, Д/держава, К/королевство);
г) И/империя (Г/государство, Д/держава, К/королевство) К/каролингов;
д) И/империя (Г/государство, Д/держава, К/королевство) Карла Великого.
2) В словаре «Строчная или прописная?» Лопатина и Чельцовой предлагается следующее написание: гитлерюгенд, ку-клукс-клан. Но разве это правильно? Ведь это оригинальные названия общественно-политических организаций, следовательно, должны писаться с заглавной буквы и в кавычках. (Особенно странным подобное написание кажется в словосочетаниях: организация гитлерюгенд /ку-клукс-клан, движение гитлерюгенд/ку-клукс-клан.)

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

1. Правила таковы. Слова королевство, республика, государство  и др. пишутся с большой буквы в официальных названиях современных государств, например: Королевство Испания, Соединенное Королевство; Федеративная Республика Германия, Литовская Республика; Государство Израиль, Государство Катар. В исторических названиях государств слова королевство, республика, государство, империя, держава и др. пишутся с маленькой буквы, а с большой буквы пишутся собственные названия, например: Французское королевство, Сицилийское королевство; Новгородская республика, Венецианская республика; Восточно-Франкское государство, государство Чжоу; Российская империя, Британская империя, империя Цинь; Великоморавская держава.

Таким образом, орфографически верным будет написание Франкское государство, Франкская империя, империя франков, государство франков (оба слова со строчной, т. к. нет имени собственного), империя Каролингов, империя Карла Великого, держава Карла Великого и т. п.

2. На этот вопрос мы попросили ответить одного из авторов словаря – В. В. Лопатина. Написание со строчной таких слов, как гитлерюгенд и ку-клукс-клан (хотя это, действительно, индивидуальные названия организаций, движений), обусловлено исключительно многолетней традицией. Традицией, в формировании которой немалую роль сыграла и определенная идеологическая подоплека: гитлерюгенд – нацистская, вражеская организация, ку-клукс-клан – организация, проповедующая враждебную нам расистскую идеологию. Иными словами, сложилась традиция написания этих слов со строчной как обозначающих чуждые понятия.

Будьте любезны, подскажите, нужны ли запятые:
«Что есть(,) то есть»; «Новгородские поехали разузнать(,) что да как»?
Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Запятые ставятся.

Будьте любезны, подскажите, нужны ли запятые:
«Что есть(,) то есть»; «Новгородские поехали разузнать(,) что да как»?
Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Запятые здесь нужны.

Уважаемые эксперты!
В свое время русские, проживавшие в Киргизии, употребляли (да употребляют и сейчас) в речи слово «подлив» для обозначения горячей приправы, соуса. В то время как на территории России (в частности, в Новгородской, Московской и Ленинградской областях) всегда употреблялось слово «подливка». Не могли бы Вы указать правильный вариант, или оба варианта верны и являются лишь региональными вариациями одного и того же понятия?
Заранее благодарен!

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

В значении «соус» корректно использовать слова подливка и подлива. Подлив — действие по глаголу подлить (подлив сливок в кофе); раствор извести.

Как правильно писать — дети новгородской (или Новгородской) области?
Заранее спасибо!

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Верно: Новгородская область.

Здравствуйте! Ранее в ответах на вопросы №№ 186741, 190772 и 247771 Вы указали, что второе слово в названии Российская Империя пишется со строчной буквы. Пожалуйста, объясните такое написание. Согласно правилам, приведённым здесь же на сайте, «§ 100. Пишутся с прописной буквы индивидуальные названия aстрономических и географических объектов (в том числе и названия государств и их административно-политических частей), улиц, зданий. Если эти названия составлены из двух или нескольких слов, то с прописной буквы пишутся все слова, кроме служебных слов и родовых названий». В данном случае Империя не родовое название, а имя собственное, так же как и Российская Федерация. Почему же во втором случае второе слово считается частью имени собственного и пишется с прописной буквы (Федерация), а в первом — родовым названием и пишется со строчной (империя)???
На чём это основано и не является ли претенциозным пережитком недавнего прошлого?
Спасибо! С уважением,

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

С прописной буквы пишутся все слова (кроме служебных) в официальных названиях существующих государств и государственных объединений. Государства Российская империя в настоящее время не существует, это исторический термин, поэтому с прописной пишется только первое слово. Ср.: Королевство Испания, Соединенное Королевство (официальные названия современных государств), но: Французское королевство, Неаполитанское королевство (исторические названия); Республика Кипр, Итальянская Республика, но: Венецианская республика, Новгородская республика. Правильно: Российская империя (а также Римская империя, Османская империя, Британская империя и т. п.).

Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии

Новгородская Русь — объединение северной части восточно-славянских племён, сложившееся в IX веке вокруг Новгорода (или его города-предшественника, на роль которого претендуют Словенск и Старая Ладога) и название первого (докиевского) периода существования Русского государства во главе с династией Рюриковичей.

«Новгородская Русь» — современное название, в исторических документах не встречается. Более верные названия «Новгородская Земля» и «Новгородское Княжество». В 882 году преемник Рюрика новгородский князь Олег захватил Киев и сделал его своей столицей, объединив тем самым славянский север и юг. После этого Новгород остался вторым по важности политическим центром и в период феодальной раздробленности продолжил автономное существование в качестве Новгородской земли.

История

В арабских источниках X века известна как ас-Славийя. В византийских (Константин Багрянородный) источниках известна как Внешняя Росия (в противовес областям вокруг Киева — Росии).[1]

Летописным основателем Новгородской Руси считается варяжский князь Рюрик, княживший с 862 по 879 год. Археологические данные свидетельствуют, что новгородская княжеская резиденция середины IX века обладала яркими признаками скандинавского присутствия, причём возникла значительно ранее города Новгорода.[2]

Однако, согласно летописям, ладожские варяги и раньше (c 859 или даже с 852)[3] брали дань с территории Новгородской Руси, куда входили земли проживания чуди, ильменских славянах, мери, веси и части кривичей.

В эпоху Рюрика, помимо Новгорода из городов Новгородской Руси упоминаются также Ладога, Белоозеро , Изборск, Ростов.

Преемник Рюрика князь Олег подчинил себе города Смоленск и Любеч в 882, а затем утвердился в Киеве, куда перенёс столицу государства. Новгородская Русь продолжает существование в составе Киевской Руси в качестве новгородской земли, сохраняя некоторую самостоятельность. В тексте русско-византийского договора 907 года перечисляются города, где «сидят великие князья, подвластные Олегу»[4] Новгород среди них не значится, однако «Повесть временных лет» сообщает о ежегодной дани с него в пользу киевского князя вплоть до княжения Ярослава. Вероятно вмешательство в дела Новгородской Руси ограничивалось данью Киеву, так как согласно летописи в 970 году новгородцы просили себе князя у киевского князя Святослава и ставили условие: «Если не пойдете к нам, то сами добудем себе князя.»

 См. также

• Новгородская земля
• Новгородская феодальная республика (1136—1478)

 Источники и сноски

• Новгородская Русь по берестяным грамотам
• Новгород Великий — статья в Энциклопедическом словаре Брокгауза и Ефрона

 См. также

• Новгородская земля
• Новгородская феодальная республика
• Карельское княжество
• Великий Новгород
• Древненовгородский диалект

 Библиография

• Новгородская карамзинская летопись, первая выборка, ПСРЛ, т.42, СПб 2002
• A.J.Hipping, Neva och Nyenskans, Helsingfors, 1836 «Нева и Ниеншанц», СПб, 2003
• Летописи Новгородские и Софийская
• Неволин, «О пятинах новгородских»
• Соловьев, «Об отношениях Н. к великим князьям»
• Андреевский, «О договоре Н. с немецкими городами и Готландом»
• Костомаров, «Северно-русские народоправства»
• Беляев, «Рассказы из русской истории» (т. II)
• Пассек, «Н. сам в себе»; Бережков, «О торговле Руси с Ганзой до конца XV в.»
• Никитский, «Очерк внутренней истории церкви в Вел. Н.»