Рассказ о казахском народе

Самоназвание — казах, коренное население Казахстана. Общая численность казахов более 14 млн. человек, в том числе в Казахстане 654011 млн. 245 тысяч человек. В Российской Федерации проживает 648 тысяч казахов, в том числе в Самарской области — 15 602 человек.

Говорят на казахском языке тюркской группы алтайской семьи. Становление и развитие языка, близкого к современному казахскому языку, происходило в XIII—XIV веках. Следует отметить, что современный казахский язык в целом очень близок к староказахскому. Письменность на русской графической основе. Верующие — мусульмане-сунниты.

Сложение казахского народа происходило в условиях длительного взаимодействия разнородных кочевых племён. Древние тюркские народы, впоследствии ставшие предками в том числе и современных казахов, сыграли заметную роль в истории Евразии. Завершающая стадия тюркизации была связана с включением Казахстана в зону влияния разнородных тюркоязычных племён с середины 1-го тысячелетия. С возникновением Казахского ханства во второй половине XV века произошло завершение этногенетического процесса, оформилась казахская этническая общность. В её составе сложились три хозяйственно-культурных объединения — жуза, каждый из которых включал группу племён и занимал обособленный район: Семиречье — Старший жуз (улы жуз), Центральный Казахстан — Средний жуз (орта жуз) и Западный Казахстан — Младший жуз (киши жуз).

В 1731 году добровольно вошли в состав России казахи Младшего жуза, в 1740 — казахи Среднего и части Старшего жуза; присоединение Казахстана к России завершилось в 60-е годы XIX века. В составе РСФСР в 1920 была образована Киргизская АССР, переименована в 1925 в Казахскую АССР, которая в 1936 преобразована в Казахскую ССР. С 1991 — Республика Казахстан.

Традиционное занятие — полукочевое и кочевое скотоводство (овцеводство, в основном грубошёрстных курдючных пород, крупный рогатый скот, козы), в том числе коневодство и верблюдоводство, базировавшееся на круглогодичном пастбищном содержании скота. Радиус перекочёвок достигал 1000—1200 км. Каждая кочевая группа имела строго определённые пастбища и кочевые пути. Пастбищные угодья разделялись по сезону: зимой располагались в основном на юге — при меридиональном кочевании, в речных долинах и предгорной полосе — при вертикальном кочевании; летом — соответственно в степной и лесостепной зонах и в горах. Земледелие (поливное) носило вспомогательный характер.

Присоединение Казахстана к России вызвало значительные изменения в хозяйстве казахов, в частности способствовало развитию земледелия. Сеяли главным образом просо и пшеницу. Интенсификация скотоводства, а также сокращение пастбищных территорий и развитие земледелия приводили к оседанию части кочевников.

Традиционные ремёсла у женщин — прядение овечьей и верблюжьей шерсти, изготовление ковров и войлоков, вышивание, шитьё золотом и бисером, плетение циновок; у мужчин — ювелирное, обработка металла, резьба по дереву и кости, тиснение кожи.

Коренные изменения в экономической и социальной жизни казахов произошли в годы советской власти. Казахи перешли к оседлости, главным образом в принудительном порядке. Животноводство стало отгонно-пастбищным. Широкое развитие получило механизированное земледелие (зерновые, технические и другие культуры). Создана развитая многоотраслевая промышленность.

Традиционное поселение — аул. Основной вид традиционного жилища — юрта (сохраняет подсобную роль). При перекочёвках она перевозилась во вьюках в разобранном виде. Юрту 2-3 человека могут установить за 1 час. Были широко распространены зимние постоянные жилища: каменные шошала, или тошала, и юртообразные постройки из дерева, плетня, дёрна и камыша, а также землянки.

Традиционная мужская одежда состоит из рубахи, штанов и бешмета — узкой наплечной одежды до колен со стоячим воротником. Верхняя одежда — халат (шапан); у богатых казахов халат был из бархата и расшит золотом или галуном; иногда оторочен мехом. Непременная часть мужской одежды — кожаный пояс. Головной убор мужчин — тюбетейка, поверх неё надевали или войлочную шляпу с разрезными отгибающимися полями, или башлык, или шапку в виде колпака мехом внутрь с отгибающимися наружу полями, или тымак — зимнюю шапку, подбитую мехом, с широкими полями, спускающимися на шею и плечи.

Традиционная женская одежда — рубаха-платье, штаны, хлопчатобумажное платье — тёмное или белое у пожилых и цветное у молодых, безрукавка. У молодых женщин — нагрудник из сукна и других тканей, расшитый нитками, галуном и разнообразными украшениями. Женские головные уборы различались в зависимости от племенной принадлежности, возраста и семейного положения. Характерен свадебный убор (саукеле) — высокий колпак из красного сукна или бархата, часто богато украшенный подвесками, бусами и цепочками, у замужних женщин кимешек — род капюшона из белой хлопчатобумажной, реже шёлковой ткани, закрывающий голову, плечи, грудь и спину, с вырезом для лица; поверх капюшона надевался белый тюрбан. Женщины носили серебряные, медные и стеклянные украшения: серьги, бусы, браслеты, кольца и др.

Основу традиционного питания с весны и до осени составляло молоко, в основном в сквашенном виде (катык или айран — из овечьего и коровьего молока, кумыс — из кобыльего), сыр; с ноября — мясные и растительные продукты. Одно из популярных казахских блюд — бешбармак, из варёной свежей баранины с кусочками раскатанного варёного теста. К основным блюдам нередко относят также и разнообразные варёные колбасы. Наиболее распространёнными мучными изделиями являются жареные в масле баурсаки и лепешки-шелпек, Из напитков основным является чай. Любой дастархан заканчивается чаепитием.

Основа традиционной социальной организации — кочевая община, главной ячейкой которой была малая семья с патриархальными устоями. Традиционно сохраняется и воспитывается у молодых уважение к старшим. Заключению брака предшествовало сватовство, неоднократное посещение женихом невесты, взаимные одаривания между сватами и выплата калыма. До сих пор проводится обряд «Тусау кесу» — обрезание пут на ногах, когда ребёнку исполняется один год, он знаменует, что ребёнок теперь начнёт ходить самостоятельно.

У казахов сохраняется богатый фольклор (песни, эпические сказания, исполняемые сказителями-жыршы, творчество поэтов-импровизаторов — акынов). Большую роль в духовной культуре играют генеалогические предания, эпос («Кобланды», «Козы-Корпеш» и «Баян-Слу» и др.) и сказания.

Среди праздников обязательно отмечается Наурыз мейрамы (21 марта). По поверьям, в этот день народ избавлялся от зимних тягот, радовался за благополучную сохранность богатства – скота. К Наурызу каждая семья заранее готовила ритуальное блюдо (наурыздык), состоящее из семи традиционных продуктов. Отведав их, казахи надеялись питаться ими в течение всего года. Празднование Наурыза продолжалось три дня, и все аульчане поздравляли друг друга, желая счастья и благополучия.

Как и во всех странах, где был распространен ислам, принято было отмечать два ежегодных религиозных праздника – разговения или окончания поста Ураза-айт, Курбан-айт.

Not to be confused with Cossacks.

Kazakhs

қазақтар qazaqtar قازاقتار
Kazakhs in traditional attire
Total population
c. 16 million
Regions with significant populations
Kazakhstan	13,012,645[1]
China	1,562,518[2]
Uzbekistan	803,400[3]
Russia	647,732[4]
Mongolia	102,526[5]
Kyrgyzstan	33,200[6]
United States	24,636[7]
Turkey	10,000[8]
Canada	9,600[9]
Iran	3,000–15,000[10][11]
Czech Republic	5,639[12]
Ukraine	5,526[13]
United Kingdom	5,432[14]
United Arab Emirates	5,000[15]
Italy	4,631[16]
Australia	2,310[17]
Austria	1,685[18]
Belarus	1,355[19]
Germany	1,000[20]
Portugal	633[21]
Afghanistan	200[22]
Philippines	178–215[23]
Languages
Kazakh
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam[24]
Related ethnic groups
Other Turkic peoples (especially Kyrgyz,Nogai and Karakalpaks).

The Kazakhs (also spelled Qazaqs; Kazakh: sg. қазақ, qazaq, [qɑˈzɑq] (listen), pl. қазақтар, qazaqtar, [qɑzɑqˈtɑr] (listen); the English name is transliterated from Russian; Russian: казахи) are a Turkic-speaking ethnic group native to northern parts of Central Asia, chiefly Kazakhstan, but also parts of northern Uzbekistan and the border regions of Russia, as well as Northwestern China (specifically Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture) and Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii Province). The Kazakhs are descendants of the ancient Turkic Kipchak tribes and the medieval Mongolic tribes, and generally classified as Turco-Mongol cultural group.^[25][26]

Kazakh identity is of medieval origin and was strongly shaped by the foundation of the Kazakh Khanate between 1456 and 1465, when following disintegration of the Golden Horde, several tribes under the rule of the sultans Janibek and Kerei departed from the Khanate of Abu’l-Khayr Khan in hopes of forming a powerful khanate of their own.

Kazakh is used to refer to ethnic Kazakhs, while the term Kazakhstani usually refers to all inhabitants or citizens of Kazakhstan, regardless of ethnicity.^[27][28]

Etymology[edit]

The Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century.^[29] There are many theories on the origin of the word Kazakh or Qazaq. Some speculate that it comes from the Turkic verb qaz («wanderer, vagabond, warrior, free, independent») or that it derives from the Proto-Turkic word *khasaq (a wheeled cart used by the Kazakhs to transport their yurts and belongings).^[30][31]

Another theory on the origin of the word Kazakh (originally Qazaq) is that it comes from the ancient Turkic word qazğaq, first mentioned on the 8th century Turkic monument of Uyuk-Turan.^[32] According to Turkic linguist Vasily Radlov and Orientalist Veniamin Yudin, the noun qazğaq derives from the same root as the verb qazğan («to obtain», «to gain»). Therefore, qazğaq defines a type of person who wanders and seeks gain.^[33]

History[edit]

Kazakhs’s history is full of nomadic civilisations of the Great Steppe, represented by numerous nomadic state entities, including the Sakas (Scytho-Iranians), the Huns, the Turkic Khaganate, the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde and the Kazakh Khanate, which was established in 1465.^[34]

Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia, generally with regard to individuals or groups who had taken or achieved independence from a figure of authority. Timur described his own youth without direct authority as his Qazaqliq («freedom», «Qazaq-ness»).^[35]

In Turko-Persian sources, the term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the middle of the 16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir. In this manuscript, the author locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq. According to Tarikh-i-Rashidi, the first Kazakh union was created c. 1465/1466 AD. The state was formed by nomads who settled along the border of Moghulistan, and was called Uzbeg-Kazák.^[36]

At the time of the Uzbek conquest of Central Asia, Abu’l-Khayr Khan, a descendant of Shiban, had disagreements with the Kazakh sultans Kerei and Janibek, descendants of Urus Khan. These disagreements probably resulted from the crushing defeat of Abu’l-Khayr Khan at the hands of the Kalmyks.^[37] Kerei and Janibek moved with a large following of nomads to the region of Zhetysu on the border of Moghulistan and set up new pastures there with the blessing of the Chagatayid khan of Moghulistan, Esen Buqa II, who hoped for a buffer zone of protection against the expansion of the Oirats.^[38]

Regarding these events, Haidar Dughlat in his Tarikh-i-Rashidi reports:^[39]

At that time, Abulkhair Khan exercised full power in Dasht-i-Kipchak. He had been at war with the Sultánis of Juji; while Jáni Beg Khán and Karáy Khán fled before him into Moghulistán. Isán Bughá Khán received them with great honor, and delivered over to them Kuzi Báshi, which is near Chu, on the western limit of Moghulistán, where they dwelt in peace and content. On the death of Abulkhair Khán the Ulus of the Uzbegs fell into confusion, and constant strife arose among them. Most of them joined the party of Karáy Khán and Jáni Beg Khán. They numbered about 200,000 persons, and received the name of Uzbeg-Kazák. The Kazák Sultáns began to reign in the year 870 [1465–1466] (but God knows best), and they continued to enjoy absolute power in the greater part of Uzbegistán, till the year 940
[1533–1534 A. D.].

In the 17th century, Russian convention seeking to distinguish the Qazaqs of the steppes from the Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army suggested spelling the final consonant with «kh» instead of «q» or «k», which was officially adopted by the USSR in 1936.^[40]

• Kazakh — Казах
• Cossack —  Казак

The Ukrainian term Cossack probably comes from the same Kipchak etymological root, meaning wanderer, brigand, or independent free-booter.^[41][42]

Oral history[edit]

Their nomadic pastoral lifestyle made Kazakhs keep an epic tradition of oral history. The nation, which amalgamated nomadic tribes of various Kazakh origins, managed to preserve the distant memory of the original founding clans. It was important for Kazakhs to know their genealogical tree for no less than seven generations back (known as шежіре, from the Arabic word shajara – «tree»).^{[citation needed]}

Three Kazakh Juz (Hordes)[edit]

Main article: Zhuz

In modern Kazakhstan, tribalism is fading away in business and government life. Still it is common for Kazakhs to ask each other the tribe they belong to when they become acquainted with one another. Now, it is more of a tradition than necessity, and there is no hostility between tribes. Kazakhs, regardless of their tribal origin, consider themselves one nation.

Those modern-day Kazakhs who yet remember their tribes know that their tribes belong to one of the three Zhuz (juz, roughly translatable as «horde» or «hundred»):

• The Senior Horde (also called Elder or Great) (Uly juz)
• The Middle (also called Central) (Orta juz)
• The Junior (also called Younger or Lesser) (Kishi juz)

History of the Hordes[edit]

There is much debate surrounding the origins of the Hordes. Their age is unknown so far in extant historical texts, with the earliest mentions in the 17th century. The Turkologist Velyaminov-Zernov believed that it was the capture of the important cities of Tashkent, Yasi, and Sayram in 1598 by Tevvekel (Tauekel/Tavakkul) Khan that separated the Qazaqs, as they possessed the cities for only part of the 17th century.^[43] The theory suggests that the Qazaqs then divided among a wider territory after expanding from Zhetysu into most of the Dasht-i Qipchaq, with a focus on the trade available through the cities of the middle Syr Darya, to which Sayram and Yasi belonged. The Junior juz originated from the Nogais of the Nogai Horde.

Language[edit]

The Kazakh language is a member of the Turkic language family, as are Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Uyghur, Turkmen, modern Turkish, Azeri and many other living and historical languages spoken in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Xinjiang, and Siberia.

Kazakh belongs to the Kipchak (Northwestern) group of the Turkic language family. Kazakh is characterized, in distinction to other Turkic languages, by the presence of /s/ in place of reconstructed proto-Turkic */ʃ/ and /ʃ/ in place of */tʃ/; furthermore, Kazakh has /d͡ʒ/ where other Turkic languages have /j/.

Kazakh, like most of the Turkic language family lacks phonemic vowel length, and as such there is no distinction between long and short vowels.

Kazakh was written with the Arabic script until the mid-19th century, when a number of educated Kazakh poets from Muslim madrasahs incited a revolt against Russia. Russia’s response was to set up secular schools and devise a way of writing Kazakh with the Cyrillic alphabet, which was not widely accepted. By 1917, the Arabic script for Kazakh was reintroduced, even in schools and local government.

In 1927, a Kazakh nationalist movement sprang up against the Soviet Union but was soon suppressed. As a result, the Arabic script for writing Kazakh was banned and the Latin alphabet was imposed as a new writing system. In an effort to Russianize the Kazakhs, the Latin alphabet was in turn replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940 by Soviet interventionists. Today, there are efforts to return to the Latin script.

Kazakh is a state (official) language in Kazakhstan. It is also spoken in the Ili region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People’s Republic of China, where the Arabic script is used, and in western parts of Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd province), where Cyrillic script is in use. European Kazakhs use the Latin alphabet.

Religion[edit]

In the late 14th century, the Golden Horde propagated Islam in its state. Islam in Kazakhstan peaked during the era of the Kazakh Khanate, especially under rulers such as Ablai Khan and Kasym Khan. Another wave of conversions among the Kazakhs occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries via the efforts of Sufi orders.^[44] During the 18th century, Russian influence toward the region rapidly increased throughout Central Asia. Led by Catherine, the Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing Islam to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the region to preach to the Kazakhs, whom the Russians viewed as «savages» and «ignorant» of morals and ethics.^[45][46] However, Russian policy gradually changed toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness.^[47] Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly elite Russian military institutions.^[47] In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring in pan-Turkism, though many were persecuted as a result.^[48] During the Soviet era, Muslim institutions survived only in areas that Kazakhs significantly outnumbered non-Muslims, such as non-indigenous Russians, by everyday Muslim practices.^[49] In an attempt to conform Kazakhs into Communist ideologies, gender relations and other aspects of Kazakh culture were key targets of social change.^[46]

In more recent times, however, Kazakhs have gradually employed a determined effort in revitalizing Islamic religious institutions after the fall of the Soviet Union. Most Kazakhs continue to identify with their Islamic faith,^[50] and even more devotedly in the countryside. Those who claim descent from the original Muslim soldiers and missionaries of the 8th-century command substantial respect in their communities.^[51] Kazakh political figures have also stressed the need to sponsor Islamic awareness. For example, the Kazakh Foreign Affairs Minister, Marat Tazhin, recently emphasized that Kazakhstan attaches importance to the use of «positive potential Islam, learning of its history, culture and heritage.»^[52]

Pre-Islamic beliefs, such as worship of the sky, the ancestors, and fire, continued to a great extent to be preserved among the common people, however. Kazakhs believed in the supernatural forces of good and evil spirits, of wood goblins and giants. To protect themselves from them and from the evil eye, Kazakhs wore protection beads and talismans. Shamanic beliefs are still widely preserved among Kazakhs, as well as the belief in the strength of the bearers of that worship, the shamans, which Kazakhs call bakhsy. Unlike the Siberian shamans, who used drums during their rituals, Kazakh shamans, who could also be men or women, played (with a bow) on a stringed instrument similar to a large violin. At present both Islamic and pre-Islamic beliefs continue to be found among Kazakhs, especially among the elderly. According to 2009 national census 39,172 ethnic Kazakhs are Christians (0.0038% of all Kazakhstani Kazakhs).^[53]

Origin and ethnogenesis[edit]

Kazakhs are a Turkic-speaking ethnic group, who formed from various nomadic tribes and clans, sharing a common lifestyle. Once inhabited by Indo-European, specifically Iranian peoples, such as the Saka, Turkic peoples largely assimilated and replaced the previous population, giving rise to various Stepper entities, such as the First Turkic Khaganate or the Kipchak Khaganate, which was later conquered by Mongolic peoples and integrated into the Mongol empire. Subsequently, the ancestors of Kazakhs belonged to the Golden Horde, a Turco-Mongol state, which would later disintegrate and give rise to the Kazakh Khanate, in which the final ethnogenesis of Kazakhs took place. There was also some secondary Han Chinese influence through the Tang dynasty in Inner Asia, with the Turkic tribes being vasalls of Tang China, declaring the Chinese emperor to be the Heavenly Khaghan of Turks.^{[54][55][56][57][58]}

The exact place of origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion. Their homeland may have been in Southern Siberia, specifically the Altai-Sayan region. Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranian, Mongolic, Tocharian, Yeniseian people, and others.^[59][60][61]

The Kazakhs emerged as an ethno-linguistic group during the early 15th century from a confederation of several, mostly Turkic-speaking pastoral nomadic groups of Northern Central Asia. The Kazakhs are the most northerly of the Central Asian peoples, inhabiting a large expanse of territory in northern Central Asia and southern Siberia known as the Kazakh Steppe. The tribal groups formed a powerful confederation that grew wealthy on the trade passing through the steppe lands along the fabled Silk Road.^[62]

Genetic studies[edit]

Genomic research confirmed that Kazakhs originated from the admixture of several tribes.^[56][64][65] Kazakhs have predominantly East Asian ancestry, and harbor two East Asian-derived components, one dominant component commonly found among Northeastern Asian populations (associated with the Northeast Asian «Devil’s Gate_N» sample from the Amur region), and another minor component associated with historical Yellow River farmers, peaking among Han Chinese. According to one study, West-Eurasian related admixture among Kazakhs is estimated at a mean average of about 35% to 37.5%, and is suggested to have been derived from assimilated Bronze and Iron Age Steppe pastoralists (Western Steppe Herders), but also remnants of Ancient North Eurasian (such as [[Tarim mummies|Tarim_EMBA).^[66] Another study estimated a lower average Western admixture of slightly less than 30%.^[63][67] These results are inline with historical demographic information on northern Central Asia.^[68] Neighboring Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz, Tubalar, and the Xinjiang Ölöd tribe, have the strongest resemblance to the Kazakh genome.^[69]

A study on allele frequency and genetic polymorphism by Katsuyama et al., found that Kazakhs cluster together with Japanese people, Hui people, Han Chinese, and Uyghurs in contrast to West-Eurasian reference groups.^[70]

A 2020 genetic study on the Kazakh genome, by Seidualy et al., found that the Kazakh people formed from highly mixed historical Central Asian populations. Ethnic Kazakhs were modeled to derive about ~63.2% ancestry from an East Asian-related population, specifically from a Northeast Asian source sample (Devil’s Gate 1), ~30.8% ancestry from European-related populations (presumably from Scythians), and ~6% ancestry from a broadly South Asian population. Overall, Kazakhs show their closest genetic affinity with other Central Asian populations, namely, Kalmyk, Karakalpak and Kyrgyz people, but also Mongolians. MSMC analyses suggest that the main ancestral lineage of Kazakhs split from Mongolians and other Northeast Asians about 7,000 years ago, while their divergence from Koryaks was estimated to be 10,000 years ago.^[71]

Maternal lineages[edit]

According to mitochondrial DNA studies^[72] (where sample consisted of only 246 individuals), the main maternal lineages of Kazakhs are: D (17.9%), C (16%), G (16%), A (3.25%), F (2.44%) of East-Eurasian origin (55%), and haplogroups H (14.1), T (5.5), J (3.6%), K (2.6%), U5 (3%), and others (12.2%) of West-Eurasian origin (41%). An analysis of ancient Kazakhs found that East Asian haplogroups such as A and C did not begin to move into the Kazakh steppe region until around the time of the Xiongnu (1st millennia BCE), which is around the onset of the Sargat Culture as well (Lalueza-Fox 2004).^[73]

Gokcumen et al. (2008) tested the mtDNA of a total of 237 Kazakhs from Altai Republic and found that they belonged to the following haplogroups: D(xD5) (15.6%), C (10.5%), F1 (6.8%), B4 (5.1%), G2a (4.6%), A (4.2%), B5 (4.2%), M(xC, Z, M8a, D, G, M7, M9a, M13) (3.0%), D5 (2.1%), G2(xG2a) (2.1%), G4 (1.7%), N9a (1.7%), G(xG2, G4) (0.8%), M7 (0.8%), M13 (0.8%), Y1 (0.8%), Z (0.4%), M8a (0.4%), M9a (0.4%), and F2 (0.4%) for a total of 66.7% mtDNA of Eastern Eurasian origin or affinity and H (10.5%), U(xU1, U3, U4, U5) (3.4%), J (3.0%), N1a (3.0%), R(xB4, B5, F1, F2, T, J, U, HV) (3.0%), I (2.1%), U5 (2.1%), T (1.7%), U4 (1.3%), U1 (0.8%), K (0.8%), N1b (0.4%), W (0.4%), U3 (0.4%), and HV (0.4%) for a total of 33.3% mtDNA of West-Eurasian origin or affinity.^[74] Comparing their samples of Kazakhs from Altai Republic with samples of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan and Kazakhs from Xinjiang, the authors have noted that «haplogroups A, B, C, D, F1, G2a, H, and M were present in all of them, suggesting that these lineages represent the common maternal gene pool from which these different Kazakh populations emerged.»^[74]

In every sample of Kazakhs, D (predominantly northern East Asian, such as Japanese, Okinawan, Korean, Manchu, Mongol, Han Chinese, Tibetan, etc., but also having several branches among indigenous peoples of the Americas) is the most frequently observed haplogroup (with nearly all of those Kazakhs belonging to the D4 subclade), and the second-most frequent haplogroup is either H (predominantly European) or C (predominantly indigenous Siberian, though some branches are present in the Americas, East Asia, and eastern and northern Europe).^[74]

Paternal lineages[edit]

In a sample of 54 Kazakhs and 119 Altaian Kazakh, the main paternal lineages of Kazakhs are: C (66.7% and 59.5%), O (9% and 26%), N (2% and 0%), J (4% and 0%), R (9% and 1%) respectively.^[75]

Population[edit]

Ethnic Kazakhs in percent of total population of Kazakhstan

1897	1917	1926	1939	1959	1979	1989	1999	2009	2018
81.7%	58.0%	58.5%	37.8%	29.8%	36.2%	37.8%	53.5%	63.1%	67.5%

Historical population of Kazakhs:
Huge drop in population of Ethnic Kazakhs between 1897 and 1959 years caused by colonial politics of Russian Empire, then genocide
which occurred during Stalin Regime. Sarah Cameron (Associate Professor of University of Maryland) described this genocide on her book, «The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan».

Year	Population
1897	3,392,700
1917	3,615,000
1926	3,627,612
1939	2,327,625
1959	2,794,966
1979	5,289,349
1989	6,227,549
1999	8,011,452
2009	10,096,763
2018	12,212,645

Kazakh minorities[edit]

Russia[edit]

In Russia, the Kazakh population lives primarily in the regions bordering Kazakhstan. According to latest census (2002) there are 654,000 Kazakhs in Russia, most of whom are in the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Saratov, Samara, Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Altai Krai and Altai Republic regions. Though ethnically Kazakh, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, those people acquired Russian citizenship.

Ethnic Kazakhs of Russia^[76]
national censuses data

1939	%	1959	%	1970	%	1979	%	1989	%	2002	%	2010	%
356 646	0.33	382 431	0.33	477 820	0.37	518 060	0.38	635 865	0.43	653 962	0.45	647 732	0.45

China[edit]

Kazakhs migrated into Dzungaria in the 18th century after the Dzungar genocide resulted in the native Buddhist Dzungar Oirat population being massacred.

Kazakhs, called «哈萨克族» in Chinese (pinyin: Hāsàkè Zú; lit. ‘»Kazakh people» or «Kazakh tribe»‘) are among 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People’s Republic of China. According to the census data of 2010, Kazakhs had a population of 1.462 million, ranking 17th among all ethnic groups in China. Thousands of Kazakhs fled to China during the 1932–1933 famine in Kazakhstan.

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.^[77][78][79]

From Northern Xinjiang over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating Kazakhs to designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other.^[when?][80] Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai.^{[citation needed][when?]} In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers, and the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh.^[when?][81] Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 640 kilometres (400 miles) east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.^{[when?][82][83]}

In 1934, 1935, and from 1936 to 1938 Qumil Elisqan led approximately 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu, entering Gansu and Qinghai.^[84]

In China there is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture, the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and three Kazakh autonomous counties: Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County in Gansu, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County and Mori Kazakh Autonomous County in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.^{[citation needed]}

At least one million Uyghurs, Kazakhs and other ethnic Muslims in Xinjiang have been detained in mass detention camps, termed «reeducation camps», aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.^[85][86][87]

Mongolia[edit]

In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed Kazakhs to neighboring countries. In around 1860, part of the Middle Jüz Kazakhs came to Mongolia and were allowed to settle down in Bayan-Ölgii, Western Mongolia and for most of the 20th century they remained an isolated, tightly knit community.
Ethnic Kazakhs (so-called Altaic Kazakhs or Altai-Kazakhs) live predominantly in Western Mongolia in Bayan-Ölgii Province (88.7% of the total population) and Khovd Province (11.5% of the total population, living primarily in Khovd city, Khovd sum and Buyant sum). In addition, a number of Kazakh communities can be found in various cities and towns spread throughout the country. Some of the major population centers with a significant Kazakh presence include Ulaanbaatar 90% in khoroo #4 of Nalaikh düüreg,^[88] Töv and Selenge provinces, Erdenet, Darkhan, Bulgan, Sharyngol (17.1% of population total)^[89] and Berkh cities.

Ethnic Kazakhs of Mongolia^[90]
national censuses data

1956	%	1963	%	1969	%	1979	%	1989	%	2000	%	2010[5]	%	2020[91]	%
36,729	4.34	47,735	4.69	62,812	5.29	84,305	5.48	120,506	6.06	102,983	4.35	101,526	3.69	121,000	3.81

Uzbekistan[edit]

As of the beginning of 2021, more than 821000 ethnic Kazakhs lived in Uzbekistan.^[92]

Iran[edit]

During the Qajar period, Iran bought Kazakh slaves who were falsely masqueraded as Kalmyks by slave dealers from the Khiva and Turkmens.^[93][94]

Kazakhs of the Aday tribe inhabited the border regions of the Russian Empire with Iran since the 18th century. The Kazakhs made up 20% of the population of the Trans-Caspian region according to the 1897 census. As a result of the Kazakhs’ rebellion against the Russian Empire in 1870, a significant number of Kazakhs became refugees in Iran.

Iranian Kazakhs live mainly in Golestan Province in northern Iran.^[95] According to ethnologue.org, in 1982 there were 3000 Kazakhs living in the city of Gorgan.^[96][97] Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the number of Kazakhs in Iran decreased because of emigration to their historical motherland.^[98]

Afghanistan[edit]

Kazakhs fled to Afghanistan in the 1930s escaping Bolshevik persecution. Kazakh historian Gulnar Mendikulova cites that there were between 20,000 and 24,000 Kazakhs in Afghanistan as of 1978. Some assimilated locally and cannot speak the Kazakh language.^[22]

As of 2021, there are about 200 Kazakhs remaining in Afghanistan according to Kazakhstan’s foreign ministry. Locals claim that many live in Kunduz and others in Takhar Province, Baghlan Province, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kabul.^[22]

Afghan Kypchaks are Aimak (Taymani) tribe of Kazakh origin that can be found in Obe District to the east of the western Afghan province of Herat, between the rivers Farāh Rud and Hari Rud. There are approximately 440,000 Afghan Kipchaks.

Turkey[edit]

Turkey received refugees from among the Pakistan-based Kazakhs, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbeks numbering 3,800 originally from Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War.^[99] Kayseri, Van, Amasya, Çiçekdağ, Gaziantep, Tokat, Urfa, and Serinyol received via Adana the Pakistan-based Kazakh, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbek refugees numbering 3,800 with UNHCR assistance.^[100]

In 1954 and 1969 Kazakhs migrated into Anatolia’s Salihli, Develi and Altay regions.^[101] Turkey became home to refugee Kazakhs.^[102]

The Kazakh Turks Foundation (Kazak Türkleri Vakfı) is an organization of Kazakhs in Turkey.^[103]

Culture[edit]

Music[edit]

One of the most commonly used traditional musical instruments of the Kazakhs is the dombra, a plucked lute with two strings. It is often used to accompany solo or group singing. Another popular instrument is kobyz, a bow instrument played on the knees. Along with other instruments, both instruments play a key role in the traditional Kazakh orchestra. A notable composer is Kurmangazy, who lived in the 19th century. After studying in Moscow, Gaziza Zhubanova became the first woman classical composer in Kazakhstan, whose compositions reflect Kazakh history and folklore. A notable singer of the Soviet epoch is Roza Rymbaeva, she was a star of the trans-Soviet-Union scale. A notable Kazakh rock band is Urker, performing in the genre of ethno-rock, which synthesises rock music with the traditional Kazakh music.

Notable Kazakhs[edit]

See also[edit]

• Chala Kazakh
• Kazakh Americans
• Kazakh Canadians
• Kazakhs in Russia
• Turkic peoples
• List of Kazakhs
• Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Kazakh tribes
• ‘Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia’The International Journal of Intangible Heritage (vol.7), pp. 103–111. 2012. [2]
• ‘Ethnoarhchaeology of Horse-Riding Falconry’, The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2012 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 167–182. 2012. [3]
• ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage of Arts and Knowledge for Coexisting with Golden Eagles: Ethnographic Studies in “Horseback Eagle-Hunting” of Altai-Kazakh Falconers’, The International Congress of Humanities and Social Sciences Research, pp. 307–316. 2012. [4]
• ‘Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers’, Falco: The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, pp. 10–14. 2013. [5]
• ‘Ethnoarchaeology of Ancient Falconry in East Asia’, The Asian Conference on Cultural Studies 2013 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 81–95. 2013. [6]
• Soma, Takuya. 2014. ‘Current Situation and Issues of Transhumant Animal Herding in Sagsai County, Bayan Ulgii Province, Western Mongolia’, E-journal GEO 9(1): pp. 102–119. [7]
• Soma, Takuya. 2015. Human and Raptor Interactions in the Context of a Nomadic Society: Anthropological and Ethno-Ornithological Studies of Altaic Kazakh Falconry and its Cultural Sustainability in Western Mongolia. University of Kassel Press, Kassel (Germany) ISBN 978-3-86219-565-7.

Not to be confused with Cossacks.

Kazakhs

қазақтар qazaqtar قازاقتار
Kazakhs in traditional attire
Total population
c. 16 million
Regions with significant populations
Kazakhstan	13,012,645[1]
China	1,562,518[2]
Uzbekistan	803,400[3]
Russia	647,732[4]
Mongolia	102,526[5]
Kyrgyzstan	33,200[6]
United States	24,636[7]
Turkey	10,000[8]
Canada	9,600[9]
Iran	3,000–15,000[10][11]
Czech Republic	5,639[12]
Ukraine	5,526[13]
United Kingdom	5,432[14]
United Arab Emirates	5,000[15]
Italy	4,631[16]
Australia	2,310[17]
Austria	1,685[18]
Belarus	1,355[19]
Germany	1,000[20]
Portugal	633[21]
Afghanistan	200[22]
Philippines	178–215[23]
Languages
Kazakh
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam[24]
Related ethnic groups
Other Turkic peoples (especially Kyrgyz,Nogai and Karakalpaks).

The Kazakhs (also spelled Qazaqs; Kazakh: sg. қазақ, qazaq, [qɑˈzɑq] (listen), pl. қазақтар, qazaqtar, [qɑzɑqˈtɑr] (listen); the English name is transliterated from Russian; Russian: казахи) are a Turkic-speaking ethnic group native to northern parts of Central Asia, chiefly Kazakhstan, but also parts of northern Uzbekistan and the border regions of Russia, as well as Northwestern China (specifically Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture) and Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii Province). The Kazakhs are descendants of the ancient Turkic Kipchak tribes and the medieval Mongolic tribes, and generally classified as Turco-Mongol cultural group.^[25][26]

Kazakh identity is of medieval origin and was strongly shaped by the foundation of the Kazakh Khanate between 1456 and 1465, when following disintegration of the Golden Horde, several tribes under the rule of the sultans Janibek and Kerei departed from the Khanate of Abu’l-Khayr Khan in hopes of forming a powerful khanate of their own.

Kazakh is used to refer to ethnic Kazakhs, while the term Kazakhstani usually refers to all inhabitants or citizens of Kazakhstan, regardless of ethnicity.^[27][28]

Etymology[edit]

The Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century.^[29] There are many theories on the origin of the word Kazakh or Qazaq. Some speculate that it comes from the Turkic verb qaz («wanderer, vagabond, warrior, free, independent») or that it derives from the Proto-Turkic word *khasaq (a wheeled cart used by the Kazakhs to transport their yurts and belongings).^[30][31]

Another theory on the origin of the word Kazakh (originally Qazaq) is that it comes from the ancient Turkic word qazğaq, first mentioned on the 8th century Turkic monument of Uyuk-Turan.^[32] According to Turkic linguist Vasily Radlov and Orientalist Veniamin Yudin, the noun qazğaq derives from the same root as the verb qazğan («to obtain», «to gain»). Therefore, qazğaq defines a type of person who wanders and seeks gain.^[33]

History[edit]

Kazakhs’s history is full of nomadic civilisations of the Great Steppe, represented by numerous nomadic state entities, including the Sakas (Scytho-Iranians), the Huns, the Turkic Khaganate, the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde and the Kazakh Khanate, which was established in 1465.^[34]

Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia, generally with regard to individuals or groups who had taken or achieved independence from a figure of authority. Timur described his own youth without direct authority as his Qazaqliq («freedom», «Qazaq-ness»).^[35]

In Turko-Persian sources, the term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the middle of the 16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir. In this manuscript, the author locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq. According to Tarikh-i-Rashidi, the first Kazakh union was created c. 1465/1466 AD. The state was formed by nomads who settled along the border of Moghulistan, and was called Uzbeg-Kazák.^[36]

At the time of the Uzbek conquest of Central Asia, Abu’l-Khayr Khan, a descendant of Shiban, had disagreements with the Kazakh sultans Kerei and Janibek, descendants of Urus Khan. These disagreements probably resulted from the crushing defeat of Abu’l-Khayr Khan at the hands of the Kalmyks.^[37] Kerei and Janibek moved with a large following of nomads to the region of Zhetysu on the border of Moghulistan and set up new pastures there with the blessing of the Chagatayid khan of Moghulistan, Esen Buqa II, who hoped for a buffer zone of protection against the expansion of the Oirats.^[38]

Regarding these events, Haidar Dughlat in his Tarikh-i-Rashidi reports:^[39]

At that time, Abulkhair Khan exercised full power in Dasht-i-Kipchak. He had been at war with the Sultánis of Juji; while Jáni Beg Khán and Karáy Khán fled before him into Moghulistán. Isán Bughá Khán received them with great honor, and delivered over to them Kuzi Báshi, which is near Chu, on the western limit of Moghulistán, where they dwelt in peace and content. On the death of Abulkhair Khán the Ulus of the Uzbegs fell into confusion, and constant strife arose among them. Most of them joined the party of Karáy Khán and Jáni Beg Khán. They numbered about 200,000 persons, and received the name of Uzbeg-Kazák. The Kazák Sultáns began to reign in the year 870 [1465–1466] (but God knows best), and they continued to enjoy absolute power in the greater part of Uzbegistán, till the year 940
[1533–1534 A. D.].

In the 17th century, Russian convention seeking to distinguish the Qazaqs of the steppes from the Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army suggested spelling the final consonant with «kh» instead of «q» or «k», which was officially adopted by the USSR in 1936.^[40]

• Kazakh — Казах
• Cossack —  Казак

The Ukrainian term Cossack probably comes from the same Kipchak etymological root, meaning wanderer, brigand, or independent free-booter.^[41][42]

Oral history[edit]

Their nomadic pastoral lifestyle made Kazakhs keep an epic tradition of oral history. The nation, which amalgamated nomadic tribes of various Kazakh origins, managed to preserve the distant memory of the original founding clans. It was important for Kazakhs to know their genealogical tree for no less than seven generations back (known as шежіре, from the Arabic word shajara – «tree»).^{[citation needed]}

Three Kazakh Juz (Hordes)[edit]

Main article: Zhuz

In modern Kazakhstan, tribalism is fading away in business and government life. Still it is common for Kazakhs to ask each other the tribe they belong to when they become acquainted with one another. Now, it is more of a tradition than necessity, and there is no hostility between tribes. Kazakhs, regardless of their tribal origin, consider themselves one nation.

Those modern-day Kazakhs who yet remember their tribes know that their tribes belong to one of the three Zhuz (juz, roughly translatable as «horde» or «hundred»):

• The Senior Horde (also called Elder or Great) (Uly juz)
• The Middle (also called Central) (Orta juz)
• The Junior (also called Younger or Lesser) (Kishi juz)

History of the Hordes[edit]

There is much debate surrounding the origins of the Hordes. Their age is unknown so far in extant historical texts, with the earliest mentions in the 17th century. The Turkologist Velyaminov-Zernov believed that it was the capture of the important cities of Tashkent, Yasi, and Sayram in 1598 by Tevvekel (Tauekel/Tavakkul) Khan that separated the Qazaqs, as they possessed the cities for only part of the 17th century.^[43] The theory suggests that the Qazaqs then divided among a wider territory after expanding from Zhetysu into most of the Dasht-i Qipchaq, with a focus on the trade available through the cities of the middle Syr Darya, to which Sayram and Yasi belonged. The Junior juz originated from the Nogais of the Nogai Horde.

Language[edit]

The Kazakh language is a member of the Turkic language family, as are Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Uyghur, Turkmen, modern Turkish, Azeri and many other living and historical languages spoken in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Xinjiang, and Siberia.

Kazakh belongs to the Kipchak (Northwestern) group of the Turkic language family. Kazakh is characterized, in distinction to other Turkic languages, by the presence of /s/ in place of reconstructed proto-Turkic */ʃ/ and /ʃ/ in place of */tʃ/; furthermore, Kazakh has /d͡ʒ/ where other Turkic languages have /j/.

Kazakh, like most of the Turkic language family lacks phonemic vowel length, and as such there is no distinction between long and short vowels.

Kazakh was written with the Arabic script until the mid-19th century, when a number of educated Kazakh poets from Muslim madrasahs incited a revolt against Russia. Russia’s response was to set up secular schools and devise a way of writing Kazakh with the Cyrillic alphabet, which was not widely accepted. By 1917, the Arabic script for Kazakh was reintroduced, even in schools and local government.

In 1927, a Kazakh nationalist movement sprang up against the Soviet Union but was soon suppressed. As a result, the Arabic script for writing Kazakh was banned and the Latin alphabet was imposed as a new writing system. In an effort to Russianize the Kazakhs, the Latin alphabet was in turn replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940 by Soviet interventionists. Today, there are efforts to return to the Latin script.

Kazakh is a state (official) language in Kazakhstan. It is also spoken in the Ili region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People’s Republic of China, where the Arabic script is used, and in western parts of Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd province), where Cyrillic script is in use. European Kazakhs use the Latin alphabet.

Religion[edit]

In the late 14th century, the Golden Horde propagated Islam in its state. Islam in Kazakhstan peaked during the era of the Kazakh Khanate, especially under rulers such as Ablai Khan and Kasym Khan. Another wave of conversions among the Kazakhs occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries via the efforts of Sufi orders.^[44] During the 18th century, Russian influence toward the region rapidly increased throughout Central Asia. Led by Catherine, the Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing Islam to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the region to preach to the Kazakhs, whom the Russians viewed as «savages» and «ignorant» of morals and ethics.^[45][46] However, Russian policy gradually changed toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness.^[47] Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly elite Russian military institutions.^[47] In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring in pan-Turkism, though many were persecuted as a result.^[48] During the Soviet era, Muslim institutions survived only in areas that Kazakhs significantly outnumbered non-Muslims, such as non-indigenous Russians, by everyday Muslim practices.^[49] In an attempt to conform Kazakhs into Communist ideologies, gender relations and other aspects of Kazakh culture were key targets of social change.^[46]

In more recent times, however, Kazakhs have gradually employed a determined effort in revitalizing Islamic religious institutions after the fall of the Soviet Union. Most Kazakhs continue to identify with their Islamic faith,^[50] and even more devotedly in the countryside. Those who claim descent from the original Muslim soldiers and missionaries of the 8th-century command substantial respect in their communities.^[51] Kazakh political figures have also stressed the need to sponsor Islamic awareness. For example, the Kazakh Foreign Affairs Minister, Marat Tazhin, recently emphasized that Kazakhstan attaches importance to the use of «positive potential Islam, learning of its history, culture and heritage.»^[52]

Pre-Islamic beliefs, such as worship of the sky, the ancestors, and fire, continued to a great extent to be preserved among the common people, however. Kazakhs believed in the supernatural forces of good and evil spirits, of wood goblins and giants. To protect themselves from them and from the evil eye, Kazakhs wore protection beads and talismans. Shamanic beliefs are still widely preserved among Kazakhs, as well as the belief in the strength of the bearers of that worship, the shamans, which Kazakhs call bakhsy. Unlike the Siberian shamans, who used drums during their rituals, Kazakh shamans, who could also be men or women, played (with a bow) on a stringed instrument similar to a large violin. At present both Islamic and pre-Islamic beliefs continue to be found among Kazakhs, especially among the elderly. According to 2009 national census 39,172 ethnic Kazakhs are Christians (0.0038% of all Kazakhstani Kazakhs).^[53]

Origin and ethnogenesis[edit]

Kazakhs are a Turkic-speaking ethnic group, who formed from various nomadic tribes and clans, sharing a common lifestyle. Once inhabited by Indo-European, specifically Iranian peoples, such as the Saka, Turkic peoples largely assimilated and replaced the previous population, giving rise to various Stepper entities, such as the First Turkic Khaganate or the Kipchak Khaganate, which was later conquered by Mongolic peoples and integrated into the Mongol empire. Subsequently, the ancestors of Kazakhs belonged to the Golden Horde, a Turco-Mongol state, which would later disintegrate and give rise to the Kazakh Khanate, in which the final ethnogenesis of Kazakhs took place. There was also some secondary Han Chinese influence through the Tang dynasty in Inner Asia, with the Turkic tribes being vasalls of Tang China, declaring the Chinese emperor to be the Heavenly Khaghan of Turks.^{[54][55][56][57][58]}

The exact place of origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion. Their homeland may have been in Southern Siberia, specifically the Altai-Sayan region. Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranian, Mongolic, Tocharian, Yeniseian people, and others.^[59][60][61]

The Kazakhs emerged as an ethno-linguistic group during the early 15th century from a confederation of several, mostly Turkic-speaking pastoral nomadic groups of Northern Central Asia. The Kazakhs are the most northerly of the Central Asian peoples, inhabiting a large expanse of territory in northern Central Asia and southern Siberia known as the Kazakh Steppe. The tribal groups formed a powerful confederation that grew wealthy on the trade passing through the steppe lands along the fabled Silk Road.^[62]

Genetic studies[edit]

Genomic research confirmed that Kazakhs originated from the admixture of several tribes.^[56][64][65] Kazakhs have predominantly East Asian ancestry, and harbor two East Asian-derived components, one dominant component commonly found among Northeastern Asian populations (associated with the Northeast Asian «Devil’s Gate_N» sample from the Amur region), and another minor component associated with historical Yellow River farmers, peaking among Han Chinese. According to one study, West-Eurasian related admixture among Kazakhs is estimated at a mean average of about 35% to 37.5%, and is suggested to have been derived from assimilated Bronze and Iron Age Steppe pastoralists (Western Steppe Herders), but also remnants of Ancient North Eurasian (such as [[Tarim mummies|Tarim_EMBA).^[66] Another study estimated a lower average Western admixture of slightly less than 30%.^[63][67] These results are inline with historical demographic information on northern Central Asia.^[68] Neighboring Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz, Tubalar, and the Xinjiang Ölöd tribe, have the strongest resemblance to the Kazakh genome.^[69]

A study on allele frequency and genetic polymorphism by Katsuyama et al., found that Kazakhs cluster together with Japanese people, Hui people, Han Chinese, and Uyghurs in contrast to West-Eurasian reference groups.^[70]

A 2020 genetic study on the Kazakh genome, by Seidualy et al., found that the Kazakh people formed from highly mixed historical Central Asian populations. Ethnic Kazakhs were modeled to derive about ~63.2% ancestry from an East Asian-related population, specifically from a Northeast Asian source sample (Devil’s Gate 1), ~30.8% ancestry from European-related populations (presumably from Scythians), and ~6% ancestry from a broadly South Asian population. Overall, Kazakhs show their closest genetic affinity with other Central Asian populations, namely, Kalmyk, Karakalpak and Kyrgyz people, but also Mongolians. MSMC analyses suggest that the main ancestral lineage of Kazakhs split from Mongolians and other Northeast Asians about 7,000 years ago, while their divergence from Koryaks was estimated to be 10,000 years ago.^[71]

Maternal lineages[edit]

According to mitochondrial DNA studies^[72] (where sample consisted of only 246 individuals), the main maternal lineages of Kazakhs are: D (17.9%), C (16%), G (16%), A (3.25%), F (2.44%) of East-Eurasian origin (55%), and haplogroups H (14.1), T (5.5), J (3.6%), K (2.6%), U5 (3%), and others (12.2%) of West-Eurasian origin (41%). An analysis of ancient Kazakhs found that East Asian haplogroups such as A and C did not begin to move into the Kazakh steppe region until around the time of the Xiongnu (1st millennia BCE), which is around the onset of the Sargat Culture as well (Lalueza-Fox 2004).^[73]

Gokcumen et al. (2008) tested the mtDNA of a total of 237 Kazakhs from Altai Republic and found that they belonged to the following haplogroups: D(xD5) (15.6%), C (10.5%), F1 (6.8%), B4 (5.1%), G2a (4.6%), A (4.2%), B5 (4.2%), M(xC, Z, M8a, D, G, M7, M9a, M13) (3.0%), D5 (2.1%), G2(xG2a) (2.1%), G4 (1.7%), N9a (1.7%), G(xG2, G4) (0.8%), M7 (0.8%), M13 (0.8%), Y1 (0.8%), Z (0.4%), M8a (0.4%), M9a (0.4%), and F2 (0.4%) for a total of 66.7% mtDNA of Eastern Eurasian origin or affinity and H (10.5%), U(xU1, U3, U4, U5) (3.4%), J (3.0%), N1a (3.0%), R(xB4, B5, F1, F2, T, J, U, HV) (3.0%), I (2.1%), U5 (2.1%), T (1.7%), U4 (1.3%), U1 (0.8%), K (0.8%), N1b (0.4%), W (0.4%), U3 (0.4%), and HV (0.4%) for a total of 33.3% mtDNA of West-Eurasian origin or affinity.^[74] Comparing their samples of Kazakhs from Altai Republic with samples of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan and Kazakhs from Xinjiang, the authors have noted that «haplogroups A, B, C, D, F1, G2a, H, and M were present in all of them, suggesting that these lineages represent the common maternal gene pool from which these different Kazakh populations emerged.»^[74]

In every sample of Kazakhs, D (predominantly northern East Asian, such as Japanese, Okinawan, Korean, Manchu, Mongol, Han Chinese, Tibetan, etc., but also having several branches among indigenous peoples of the Americas) is the most frequently observed haplogroup (with nearly all of those Kazakhs belonging to the D4 subclade), and the second-most frequent haplogroup is either H (predominantly European) or C (predominantly indigenous Siberian, though some branches are present in the Americas, East Asia, and eastern and northern Europe).^[74]

Paternal lineages[edit]

In a sample of 54 Kazakhs and 119 Altaian Kazakh, the main paternal lineages of Kazakhs are: C (66.7% and 59.5%), O (9% and 26%), N (2% and 0%), J (4% and 0%), R (9% and 1%) respectively.^[75]

Population[edit]

Ethnic Kazakhs in percent of total population of Kazakhstan

1897	1917	1926	1939	1959	1979	1989	1999	2009	2018
81.7%	58.0%	58.5%	37.8%	29.8%	36.2%	37.8%	53.5%	63.1%	67.5%

Historical population of Kazakhs:
Huge drop in population of Ethnic Kazakhs between 1897 and 1959 years caused by colonial politics of Russian Empire, then genocide
which occurred during Stalin Regime. Sarah Cameron (Associate Professor of University of Maryland) described this genocide on her book, «The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan».

Year	Population
1897	3,392,700
1917	3,615,000
1926	3,627,612
1939	2,327,625
1959	2,794,966
1979	5,289,349
1989	6,227,549
1999	8,011,452
2009	10,096,763
2018	12,212,645

Kazakh minorities[edit]

Russia[edit]

In Russia, the Kazakh population lives primarily in the regions bordering Kazakhstan. According to latest census (2002) there are 654,000 Kazakhs in Russia, most of whom are in the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Saratov, Samara, Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Altai Krai and Altai Republic regions. Though ethnically Kazakh, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, those people acquired Russian citizenship.

Ethnic Kazakhs of Russia^[76]
national censuses data

1939	%	1959	%	1970	%	1979	%	1989	%	2002	%	2010	%
356 646	0.33	382 431	0.33	477 820	0.37	518 060	0.38	635 865	0.43	653 962	0.45	647 732	0.45

China[edit]

Kazakhs migrated into Dzungaria in the 18th century after the Dzungar genocide resulted in the native Buddhist Dzungar Oirat population being massacred.

Kazakhs, called «哈萨克族» in Chinese (pinyin: Hāsàkè Zú; lit. ‘»Kazakh people» or «Kazakh tribe»‘) are among 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People’s Republic of China. According to the census data of 2010, Kazakhs had a population of 1.462 million, ranking 17th among all ethnic groups in China. Thousands of Kazakhs fled to China during the 1932–1933 famine in Kazakhstan.

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.^[77][78][79]

From Northern Xinjiang over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating Kazakhs to designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other.^[when?][80] Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai.^{[citation needed][when?]} In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers, and the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh.^[when?][81] Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 640 kilometres (400 miles) east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.^{[when?][82][83]}

In 1934, 1935, and from 1936 to 1938 Qumil Elisqan led approximately 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu, entering Gansu and Qinghai.^[84]

In China there is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture, the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and three Kazakh autonomous counties: Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County in Gansu, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County and Mori Kazakh Autonomous County in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.^{[citation needed]}

At least one million Uyghurs, Kazakhs and other ethnic Muslims in Xinjiang have been detained in mass detention camps, termed «reeducation camps», aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.^[85][86][87]

Mongolia[edit]

In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed Kazakhs to neighboring countries. In around 1860, part of the Middle Jüz Kazakhs came to Mongolia and were allowed to settle down in Bayan-Ölgii, Western Mongolia and for most of the 20th century they remained an isolated, tightly knit community.
Ethnic Kazakhs (so-called Altaic Kazakhs or Altai-Kazakhs) live predominantly in Western Mongolia in Bayan-Ölgii Province (88.7% of the total population) and Khovd Province (11.5% of the total population, living primarily in Khovd city, Khovd sum and Buyant sum). In addition, a number of Kazakh communities can be found in various cities and towns spread throughout the country. Some of the major population centers with a significant Kazakh presence include Ulaanbaatar 90% in khoroo #4 of Nalaikh düüreg,^[88] Töv and Selenge provinces, Erdenet, Darkhan, Bulgan, Sharyngol (17.1% of population total)^[89] and Berkh cities.

Ethnic Kazakhs of Mongolia^[90]
national censuses data

1956	%	1963	%	1969	%	1979	%	1989	%	2000	%	2010[5]	%	2020[91]	%
36,729	4.34	47,735	4.69	62,812	5.29	84,305	5.48	120,506	6.06	102,983	4.35	101,526	3.69	121,000	3.81

Uzbekistan[edit]

As of the beginning of 2021, more than 821000 ethnic Kazakhs lived in Uzbekistan.^[92]

Iran[edit]

During the Qajar period, Iran bought Kazakh slaves who were falsely masqueraded as Kalmyks by slave dealers from the Khiva and Turkmens.^[93][94]

Kazakhs of the Aday tribe inhabited the border regions of the Russian Empire with Iran since the 18th century. The Kazakhs made up 20% of the population of the Trans-Caspian region according to the 1897 census. As a result of the Kazakhs’ rebellion against the Russian Empire in 1870, a significant number of Kazakhs became refugees in Iran.

Iranian Kazakhs live mainly in Golestan Province in northern Iran.^[95] According to ethnologue.org, in 1982 there were 3000 Kazakhs living in the city of Gorgan.^[96][97] Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the number of Kazakhs in Iran decreased because of emigration to their historical motherland.^[98]

Afghanistan[edit]

Kazakhs fled to Afghanistan in the 1930s escaping Bolshevik persecution. Kazakh historian Gulnar Mendikulova cites that there were between 20,000 and 24,000 Kazakhs in Afghanistan as of 1978. Some assimilated locally and cannot speak the Kazakh language.^[22]

As of 2021, there are about 200 Kazakhs remaining in Afghanistan according to Kazakhstan’s foreign ministry. Locals claim that many live in Kunduz and others in Takhar Province, Baghlan Province, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kabul.^[22]

Afghan Kypchaks are Aimak (Taymani) tribe of Kazakh origin that can be found in Obe District to the east of the western Afghan province of Herat, between the rivers Farāh Rud and Hari Rud. There are approximately 440,000 Afghan Kipchaks.

Turkey[edit]

Turkey received refugees from among the Pakistan-based Kazakhs, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbeks numbering 3,800 originally from Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War.^[99] Kayseri, Van, Amasya, Çiçekdağ, Gaziantep, Tokat, Urfa, and Serinyol received via Adana the Pakistan-based Kazakh, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbek refugees numbering 3,800 with UNHCR assistance.^[100]

In 1954 and 1969 Kazakhs migrated into Anatolia’s Salihli, Develi and Altay regions.^[101] Turkey became home to refugee Kazakhs.^[102]

The Kazakh Turks Foundation (Kazak Türkleri Vakfı) is an organization of Kazakhs in Turkey.^[103]

Culture[edit]

Music[edit]

One of the most commonly used traditional musical instruments of the Kazakhs is the dombra, a plucked lute with two strings. It is often used to accompany solo or group singing. Another popular instrument is kobyz, a bow instrument played on the knees. Along with other instruments, both instruments play a key role in the traditional Kazakh orchestra. A notable composer is Kurmangazy, who lived in the 19th century. After studying in Moscow, Gaziza Zhubanova became the first woman classical composer in Kazakhstan, whose compositions reflect Kazakh history and folklore. A notable singer of the Soviet epoch is Roza Rymbaeva, she was a star of the trans-Soviet-Union scale. A notable Kazakh rock band is Urker, performing in the genre of ethno-rock, which synthesises rock music with the traditional Kazakh music.

Notable Kazakhs[edit]

See also[edit]

• Chala Kazakh
• Kazakh Americans
• Kazakh Canadians
• Kazakhs in Russia
• Turkic peoples
• List of Kazakhs
• Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Kazakh tribes
• ‘Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia’The International Journal of Intangible Heritage (vol.7), pp. 103–111. 2012. [2]
• ‘Ethnoarhchaeology of Horse-Riding Falconry’, The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2012 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 167–182. 2012. [3]
• ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage of Arts and Knowledge for Coexisting with Golden Eagles: Ethnographic Studies in “Horseback Eagle-Hunting” of Altai-Kazakh Falconers’, The International Congress of Humanities and Social Sciences Research, pp. 307–316. 2012. [4]
• ‘Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers’, Falco: The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, pp. 10–14. 2013. [5]
• ‘Ethnoarchaeology of Ancient Falconry in East Asia’, The Asian Conference on Cultural Studies 2013 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 81–95. 2013. [6]
• Soma, Takuya. 2014. ‘Current Situation and Issues of Transhumant Animal Herding in Sagsai County, Bayan Ulgii Province, Western Mongolia’, E-journal GEO 9(1): pp. 102–119. [7]
• Soma, Takuya. 2015. Human and Raptor Interactions in the Context of a Nomadic Society: Anthropological and Ethno-Ornithological Studies of Altaic Kazakh Falconry and its Cultural Sustainability in Western Mongolia. University of Kassel Press, Kassel (Germany) ISBN 978-3-86219-565-7.

Казахи, возможно, и не сформировались как народ, если бы не вмешательство монголов. От такой версии отталкивается профессор Абдижапар Абдакимов, описывая этногенез казахского народа. Как повлияли монголы на формирование казахов, ведь из истории известно несколько этапов их становления?

Казахи в древние века

Казахский народ имеет длинную историю и очень тяжелую судьбу. Во многом это связано с монгольскими налетами. Так ли сильно монголы повлияли на судьбу казахского народа? До встречи казахских предков с монгольским врагом произошло множество событий, повлиявших на образование народности.

Формирование казахского народа берет свое начало между II и I тысячелетием до нашей эры. Это железный век на территории Казахстана. В то время на казахских землях и приближенных регионах проживали андроновцы. Об этих племенах достоверных сведений нет.

Но некоторые историки считают, принимая во внимание расово-генетические признаки, что этногенез казахов начинается именно с конца бронзового века. Ученые пришли к такому заключению из-за общих жизненных устоев древних андроновских племен и казахского народа:

1. На территории современного Казахстана археологи нашли большое количество памятников и сооружений для захоронений.
2. Узоры древних племен на гончарных изделиях похожи на те, которые применяются в прикладном декоративном искусстве казахов — встречаются на украшениях и коврах.
3. В бытовой культуре, верованиях, формах хозяйствования андроновцев и казахов есть схожие черты: выращивание большого количества овец и лошадей, использование их мяса в пищу, поклонение огню и духам предков.

Также казахский народ имеет некоторые сходства и с другими народами, которые проживали позднее: сарматами, гуннами, саками, кангюями и другими.

Остановимся на племени уйсунов. Некоторые ученые утверждают, что их общий жизненный уклад сильно похож на кочевой образ жизни казахов. Вероятно уйсуны составили казахский этнос.

Вот характерные признаки этого родоплеменного объединения:

• было развито скотоводство;
• вели кочевой образ жизни;
• использовали юрты как жилище;
• у племен было комплексное хозяйство — совмещали скотоводство с земледельческой деятельностью;
• употребляли в пищу молочно-мясные продукты и пекли хлеб из зерна.

В общественно-социальном устройстве уйсунов тоже было сходство с казахами. В социальном строении племен прослеживалось деление на левое, центральное и правое крыло. Ученые проводят параллели с казахскими жузами — был младший, средний и старший жузы.

Этногенез казахского народа: тюркские племена

Считается, что казахская народность берет начало с тюркского этногенеза. Это важный период, поскольку уйсуны и канглы смешались с гуннами, которые вторглись с востока.

С тех пор начался процесс языковых и внешних изменений. Благодаря этому появилось множество родственных черт, которые присущи тюркским народам: казахам, башкирам, туркменам, ногайцам, киргизам, каракалпакам, алтайцам и тувинцам.

В состав казахского народа вошли канглы, которые проживали на южных территориях Казахстана. Затем они смешались с северо-западными племенами — сарматами. Все это первые этносы Казахстана, впоследствии сформировавшие современный казахский народ.

Заселение территорий современного Казахстана тюркскими племенами — второй этап становления казахского народа. По истечении времени появились ягмы, дулаты, болаты, карлуки и большое количество других племен. Этнический состав Казахстана только увеличивался.

Формирование казахской народности происходило на основе близости разных жизненных аспектов поселений и племен. Родственные черты наблюдались в:

• традициях;
• религии;
• укладе жизни;
• политическом развитии;
• социуме;
• экономике.

Тюркские племена готовы были объединиться в единую нацию, но все испортили монголы.

Монгольский период

Третий период формирования казахского народа охватывает X–XIII века — расцвет Средневековья. Тюркские племена объединялись, из-за чего увеличивалась численность населения. Параллельно на востоке развивалась Монгольская империя. Появились такие племенные народы: кереи, жалаиры, меркиты, найманы.

Последний период формирования этнической структуры казахов охватывает время с XIII по XIV века. Это период, когда казахские предки находились под гнетом монгольского врага. Регулярные нападения стали катализатором возникновения новых этнических групп. Этот период был самым тяжелым и трудным в истории казахов.

Образование казахской народности ускорилось, поскольку тюркоязычные племена были вынуждены объединяться, чтобы противостоять сильному врагу. Но везло далеко не каждому:

• монголы разгромили одни племена;
• другие объединения вынуждены были уйти с земель;
• третьи племена пытались найти народности, которые были бы похожи с ними по духу и расовым признакам.

Вот эти последние постепенно сближались друг с другом, что привело к формированию единого народа.

Из очерка авторитетного ученого Абдакимова «История Казахстана (с древнейших времен до наших дней)» известно, что к 1218–1219 годам монголы подчинили почти все соседние страны, включая енисейских киргизов, бурятов и тангутов.

Все это повлияло на то, что очагами становления казахского народа были юго-восток, юг и центральная часть Казахстана. До этого зарождение казахской народности происходило на территории восточного Казахстана на основе кыпчакских племен и в Семиречье, где проживали усуно-карлукские племена.

Монгольские вторжения только замедлили процесс формирования единого тюркоязычного народа. Монголы внесли путаницу в географическое расположение племенных поселений. Таким образом, появлялись не только новые тюркские этносы, но и монгольские.

Вмешательство моголов разрушило уже имеющиеся социально-политические связи, культуру и этнос, хозяйственный и экономический уклад тюркских племен. Древние жители были разобщены. Монголы изменили систему руководства племенами, а также повлияли на хозяйственную деятельность, традиции, обычаи и так далее.

Монгольская система управления имела свои особенности:

• народ поделили на тысячников и туменов;
• появились улусы и уделы — этнические объединения.

Теперь были такие этнические группы: татары, ногайцы, конраты, толенгуты, чингизиды. Последние больше всех сопротивлялись вражескому правлению, пытаясь сохранить свои особенности. Чингизиды со временем стали частью народности Казахстана.

На территории Казахстана в этот период происходило множество этномиграционных процессов: древние казахи объединялись с разными этническими представителями. Монголы занимались тем же самым.

В XIV–XV веках на территории Казахстана и приграничных землях сформировались такие государства:

• Белая Орда;
• Могулистан;
• Ханство Абулхаира;
• Ногайская Орда.

В то время жителей называли узбеками, узбеками-казахами, моголами (могулами), ногаями.

Этногенез казахского народа: конец формирования казахской народности

На финальное образование казахской народности ушло несколько веков. Период начался в XIV веке и закончился в начале XVI века. За это время было достигнуто важное условие, при котором формируется любая народность, — придумали название собственному государству.

Постепенно монгольские устои начали ослабевать, а казахское этническое сознание только крепчало. Тюркские племена объединялись с монгольскими, поскольку имели похожие представления о кочевом образе жизни, духовности и культуре. Затем зародилась идея создания единого государства с национальным названием. Так предки современных казахов стали на путь формирования нации.

Хоть и присутствовало стремление создать единую нацию, но у казахов по-прежнему было разделение на жузы. В свою очередь жузы делились на рода, среди которых были большие объединения, деленные на подрода. Каждое объединение отличалось боевым кличем и знаменем, но также был общий клич «Алаш».

Знамя — родовой знак, который называли «тамга» или «танба». Каждый род имел свой знак, которым клеймили животных, использовали на предметах быта, оружии, в архитектуре.

Тамга — это не просто родовой знак, а символ, который имеет собственную историю происхождения. До сих пор достоверно не известно происхождение каждого родового знака. Это свидетельствует о том, что историю казахского народа еще предстоит изучить, поскольку современным историкам известно далеко не все. Каждая тамга — сокровище мировой культуры.

Также есть шежире (родословная). В таких сводах описана история становления племен, которые раньше обитали на территории Казахстана.

Представленные этапы формирования народности Казахстана известны благодаря открытиям, социально-политологическим анализам. По известным данным видно, как тяжело далось казахским предкам становление национальной культуры. Поэтому современным казахам нужно беречь то, что формировалось веками.

Оригинал статьи: https://www.nur.kz/family/school/1722386-etnogenez-kazahskogo-naroda-osnovnye-etapy/