This article is about the traditional Chinese music theatre. For the contemporary opera form based on western opera, see Chinese contemporary classical opera.
A Shao opera performance in Shanghai, China, 2014. This photo shows an acrobatic performer’s somersault.
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Traditional Chinese opera (traditional Chinese: 戲曲; simplified Chinese: 戏曲; pinyin: xìqǔ; Jyutping: hei3 kuk1), or Xiqu, is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more than a thousand years, reaching its mature form in the 13th century, during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Early forms of Chinese theater are simple, but over time various art forms such as music, song and dance, martial arts, acrobatics, costume and make-up art, as well as literary art forms were incorporated to form traditional Chinese opera. Performers had to practice for many years to gain an understanding of the roles. Exaggerated features and colors made it easier for the audience to identify the roles portrayed.[1][2][3][4]
There are over a hundred regional branches of traditional Chinese opera today. In the 20th century the Peking opera emerged in popularity and has come to known as the «national theatre» of China,[5] but other genres like Yue opera, Cantonese opera, Yu opera, kunqu, qinqiang, Huangmei opera, pingju, and Sichuan opera are also performed regularly before dedicated fans. Their differences are mainly found in the music and topolect; the stories are often shared and borrowed.[6] With few exceptions (such as revolutionary operas and to some extent Shanghai operas) the vast majority of Chinese operas (including Taiwanese operas) are set in China before the 17th century, whether they are traditional or newly written.
For centuries Chinese opera was the main form of entertainment for both urban and rural residents in China as well as the Chinese diaspora. Its popularity declined sharply in the second half of the 20th century as a result of both political and market factors. Language policies discouraging topolects in Taiwan and Singapore, official hostility against rural religious festivals in China, and de-Sinicization in Taiwan have all been blamed for the decline of various forms in different times, but overall the two major culprits were Cultural Revolution — which saw traditional culture systematically erased, innumerable theatre professionals viciously persecuted, and younger generation raised with far lesser exposure to Chinese opera – and modernization, with its immense social impact and imported values that Chinese opera has largely failed to counter.[7] The total number of regional genres was determined to be more than 350 in 1957,[8] but in the 21st century the Chinese government could only identify 162 forms for its intangible cultural heritage list, with many of them in immediate danger of disappearing.[9] For young people, Chinese opera is no longer part of the everyday popular music culture, but it remains an attraction for many older people who find in it, among other things, a national or regional identity.
History[edit]
Six dynasties to Tang[edit]
An early form of Chinese drama is the Canjun Opera (參軍戲, or Adjutant Play) which originated from the Later Zhao Dynasty (319–351).[10][11][12] In its early form, it was a simple comic drama involving only two performers, where a corrupt officer, Canjun or the adjutant, was ridiculed by a jester named Grey Hawk (蒼鶻).[10] The characters in Canjun Opera are thought to be the forerunners of the fixed role categories of later Chinese opera, particularly of its comic chou (丑) characters.[13]
Various song and dance dramas developed during the Six Dynasties period. During the Northern Qi Dynasty, a masked dance called the Big Face (大面, which can mean «mask», alternatively daimian 代面, and it was also called The King of Lanling, 蘭陵王), was created in honour of Gao Changgong who went into battle wearing a mask.[14][15] Another was called Botou (撥頭, also 缽頭), a masked dance drama from the Western Regions that tells the story of a grieving son who sought a tiger that killed his father.[16] In The Dancing Singing Woman (踏謡娘), which relates the story of a wife battered by her drunken husband, the song and dance drama was initially performed by a man dressed as a woman.[15][17] The stories told of in these song-and-dance dramas are simple, but they are thought to be the earliest pieces of musical theatre in China, and the precursors to the more sophisticated later forms of Chinese opera.[15][18]
These forms of early drama were popular in the Tang dynasty where they further developed. For example, by the end of the Tang Dynasty the Canjun Opera had evolved into a performance with more complex plot and dramatic twists, and it involved at least four performers.[19] The early form of Chinese theatre became more organized in the Tang dynasty with Emperor Xuanzong (712–755), who founded the «Pear Garden» (梨园/梨園; líyuán), the first academy of music to train musicians, dancers and actors.[20] The performers formed what may be considered the first known opera troupe in China, and they performed mostly for the emperors’ personal pleasure. To this day operatic professionals are still referred to as «Disciples of the Pear Garden» (梨园弟子 / 梨園弟子, líyuán dìzi).[21]
12th century painting by Su Hanchen; a girl waves a peacock feather banner like the one used in Song dynasty dramatical theater to signal an acting leader of troops
Song to Qing[edit]
By the Song Dynasty, Canjun Opera had become a performance that involved singing and dancing, and led to the development of Zaju (雜劇). Forms such as the Zaju and Nanxi (南戏) further matured in the Song dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). Acts based on rhyming schemes and innovations such as specialized roles like Dan (旦, dàn, female), Sheng (生, shēng, male), Hua (花, huā, painted-face) and Chou (丑, chŏu, clown) were introduced into the opera. Although actors in theatrical performances of the Song Dynasty strictly adhered to speaking in Classical Chinese onstage, during the Yuan Dynasty actors speaking or performing lyrics in the vernacular tongue became popular on stage.[22]
In the Yuan poetic drama, only one person sang for all of the four acts, but in the poetic dramas that developed from Nanxi during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), all the characters were able to sing and perform. A playwright Gao Ming late in the Yuan dynasty wrote an opera called Tale of the Pipa which became highly popular, and became a model for Ming dynasty drama as it was the favorite opera of the first Ming emperor Zhu Yuanzhang.[23][24] The presentation at this point resembled the Chinese opera of today, except that the librettos were then very long.[4] The operatic artists were required to be skilled in many fields; according to Recollections of Tao An (陶庵夢憶) by Zhang Dai, performers had to learn how to play various musical instruments, singing and dancing before they were taught acting.[25]
The dominant form of the Ming and early Qing dynasties was Kunqu, which originated in the Wu cultural area. A famous work in Kunqu is The Peony Pavilion by Tang Xianzu. Kunqu later evolved into a longer form of play called chuanqi, which became one of the five melodies that made up Sichuan opera.[26] Currently Chinese operas continue to exist in 368 different forms, the best known being Beijing opera, which assumed its present form in the mid-19th century and was extremely popular in the latter part of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911).
In Beijing opera, traditional Chinese string and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting. The acting is based on allusion: gestures, footwork, and other body movements express such actions as riding a horse, rowing a boat, or opening a door. Spoken dialogue is divided into recitative and Beijing colloquial speech, the former employed by serious characters and the latter by young females and clowns. Character roles are strictly defined, and each character have their own elaborate make-up design. The traditional repertoire of Beijing opera includes more than 1,000 works, mostly taken from historical novels about political and military struggles.
1912–1949[edit]
At the turn of the 20th century, Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays. Following the May Fourth Movement of 1919, a number of Western plays were staged in China, and Chinese playwrights began to imitate this form. The most notable of the new-style playwrights was Cao Yu (b. 1910). His major works—Thunderstorm, Sunrise, Wilderness, and Peking Man—written between 1934 and 1940, have been widely read in China.
The Republican Era saw the rise of Yue opera and all female Yue Opera troupes in Shanghai and Zhejiang. A woman-centric form, with all female casts and majority female audience members, plots were often love stories. Its rise was related to the changing place of women in society.
In the 1930s, theatrical productions performed by traveling Red Army cultural troupes in Communist-controlled areas were consciously used to promote party goals and political philosophy. By the 1940s, theater was well established in the Communist-controlled areas.
1949–1985[edit]
In the early years of the People’s Republic of China, development of Peking opera was encouraged; many new operas on historical and modern themes were written, and earlier operas continued to be performed. As a popular art form, opera has usually been the first of the arts to reflect changes in Chinese policy. In the mid-1950s, for example, it was the first to benefit under the Hundred Flowers Campaign, such as the birth of Jilin opera.
In 1954 there were approximately 2000 government-sponsored opera troupes working throughout China each consisting of 50-100 professional performers.[27] Despite its popularity, Peking opera made up a small percentage of these troupes. After the Chinese Communist Revolution a new genre emerged known as Schinggo opera which encompassed the revolutionary energy of the current sociopolitical climate. This operatic style built its foundation from the folk traditions of the rural community while also becoming influenced by European music.[27]
Opera may be used as commentaries on political affairs, and in November 1965, the attack on Beijing deputy mayor Wu Han and his historical play Hai Rui Dismissed from Office as anti-Mao, signaled the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, most opera troupes were disbanded, performers and scriptwriters were persecuted, and all operas were banned except the eight «model operas» that had been sanctioned by Jiang Qing and her associates. Western-style plays were condemned as «dead drama» and «poisonous weeds», and were not performed. After the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976, Beijing Opera enjoyed a revival and continued to be a very popular form of entertainment, both on stage and television.
Present[edit]
In the 21st century, Chinese opera is seldom publicly staged except in formal Chinese opera houses. It may also be presented during the lunar seventh month Chinese Ghost Festival in Asia as a form of entertainment to the spirits and audience. More than thirty famous pieces of Kunqu opera continue to be performed today, including The Peony Pavilion, The Peach Blossom Fan, and adaptions of Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
In 2001, Kunqu was recognized as Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO)
Costumes and make-ups[edit]
Costume and makeup in the opera Farewell My Concubine
Costume and makeup of a sheng character
Face paint plays a significant role in portraying the internal complexities of the performer’s character with hundreds of combinations of colours and patterns.[27] Below are some general meanings which may be further focused on extremely specific details depending on the facial location of the colour.[28]
- Red — bravery, fidelity, loyalty, chaste
- Black — impatient, straightforward, vulgar, rude
- White — cunning, treachery, villainous, traitorous
- Blue — ferocity, courage, uncontrollable, cruel, violent
- Yellow — clever, secretive, mysterious, evil
- Purple — loyalty, filial piety, age
- Green — evil spirits, brave, purposeful
- Gold and silver — gods, supernatural (monsters, spirits, demons) [27][28]
Musical Characteristics[edit]
The musical components of Chinese opera are created as an inseparable entity from voice and dance/movement. Both the musicians and the actors contribute to composing musical accompaniment. This collaborative process is reflected within the production by the immaculate synchronicity between the actors’ movements and the sounds of the orchestra. The musicians are required to flawlessly support the actors with sound, often waiting for vocal cues or physical signals such as the stomp of a foot. Traditionally, musicians often performed from memory — a feat made even more impressive considering pieces or sections of compositions were subject to infinite variations and often repeated.[27]
The orchestra utilized a pentatonic scale until a 7-note scale was introduced by Mongolia during the Yuan Dynasty. The two extra notes functioned similarly to accidentals within western notation.[27]
Instruments[edit]
The instruments in the orchestra were divided into two categories:
- wen — string and wind instruments: characterized as clear, soft, or gentle and typically used during vocal pieces.[27]
- wu — percussive instruments: led dancing and movement, kettle drum «conducts» the whole orchestra, gongs signal audience to sit, appearance of female lead, anger, and fighting.[27]
String Instruments[edit]
Traditional Chinese string instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
- Gaohu
- Erhu
- Pipa
- Sanxian
- Yangqin
- Yueqin
- Jinghu
- Jing erhu
- Banhu
- Erxian
Percussion Instruments[edit]
Traditional Chinese percussion instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
- Paiban
- Bo
- Bangu
- Daluo
- Xiaoluo
Woodwind Instruments[edit]
Traditional Chinese woodwind instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
- Dizi
- Suona
- Sheng
- Guan
Regional genres[edit]
| English name | Chinese name(s) | Major geographical areas |
|---|---|---|
| Peking opera | Jingju (京劇) | Cities nationwide on mainland, Hong Kong, Taiwan |
| Kunqu | Kunqu (崑曲) or Kunju (崑劇) | Cities nationwide on mainland, Taiwan |
| Nuo opera | Nuoxi (傩戲) | Certain rural areas in Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Anhui, Shanxi, Hebei |
| Northeast China | ||
| Longjiang opera | Longjiangju (龍江劇) | Heilongjiang |
| Jilin opera | Jiju (吉劇) | Jilin |
| Laba opera | Labaxi (喇叭戲) | Haicheng (central Liaoning) |
| North China | ||
| Ping opera | Pingju (評劇) | Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning |
| Hebei bangzi | Hebei bangzi (河北梆子) | Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, northwestern Shandong |
| Laodiao | Laodiao (老調) | Central Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin |
| Hahaqiang | Hahaqiang (哈哈腔) | Central Hebei, northwestern Shandong |
| Sixian | Sixian (絲弦) | Hebei, Shanxi |
| Sai opera | Saixi (賽戲) | Southern Hebei, northern Shanxi |
| Siguxian | Siguxian (四股弦) | Southern Hebei |
| Xidiao | Xidiao (西調) | Handan (southern Hebei) |
| Pingdiao | Pingdiao (平調) | Wu’an (southern Hebei) |
| Xilu Bangzi | Xilu Bangzi (西路梆子) | Haixing County (southeastern Hebei) |
| Shanxi opera | Jinju (晉劇) | Shanxi, western Hebei, central Inner Mongolia, northern Shaanxi |
| Yangge opera | Yanggexi (秧歌戲) | Shanxi, Hebei, Shaanxi |
| Daoqing opera | Daoqingxi (道情戲) | |
| Errentai | Errentai (二人臺) | Northern Shaanxi, northwestern Shanxi, northwestern Hebei, central Inner Mongolia |
| Xianqiang | Xianqiang (線腔) | Southernmost Shanxi, westernmost Henan, eastern Shaanxi |
| Pu opera | Puju (蒲劇) or Puzhou Bangzi (蒲州梆子) | Shanxi |
| Northwest China | ||
| Qinqiang | Qinqiang (秦腔) | Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Xinjiang |
| Tiao opera | Tiaoxi (跳戲) | Heyang County (central Shaanxi) |
| Guangguang opera | Guangguangxi (桄桄戲) | Hanzhong (southwestern Shaanxi) |
| Xiaoqu opera | Xiaoquxi (小曲戲) | Gansu |
| Quzi opera | Quzixi (曲子戲) | Northern Gansu, Xinjiang |
| Gaoshan opera | Gaoshanxi (高山戲) | Longnan (southern Gansu) |
| Henan and Shandong | ||
| Henan opera | Yuju (豫劇) | Henan, southern Hebei, Taiwan |
| Qu opera | Quju (曲劇) | Henan |
| Yuediao | Yuediao (越調) | Henan, northern Hubei |
| Wuyin opera | Wuyinxi (五音戲) | Central Shandong |
| Lü opera | Lüju (呂劇) | Southwestern Shandong |
| Maoqiang | Maoqiang (茂腔) | Jiaozhou Bay (eastern Shandong) |
| Anhui and Jiangsu | ||
| Huangmei opera | Huangmeixi (黃梅戲) | Anhui, eastern Hubei, Taiwan |
| Sizhou opera | Sizhouxi (泗州戲) | Northeastern Anhui, northwestern Jiangsu |
| Lu opera | Luju (廬劇) | Central Anhui |
| Hui opera | Huiju (徽劇) | Southern Anhui, northeastern Jiangxi |
| Huaihai opera | Huaihaixi (淮海戲) | Northern Jiangsu |
| Yangzhou opera | Yangju (揚劇) | Yangzhou (central Jiangsu) |
| Huai opera | Huaiju (淮劇) | Central Jiangsu |
| Wuxi opera | Xiju (錫劇) | Wuxi and Changzhou (southern Jiangsu) |
| Suzhou opera | Suju (蘇劇) | Suzhou (southern Jiangsu) |
| Tongzi opera | Tongzixi (童子戲) | Nantong (southeastern Jiangsu) |
| Zhejiang and Shanghai | ||
| Yue opera | Yueju (越劇) | Zhejiang, Shanghai, southern Jiangsu, northern Fujian |
| Shanghai opera | Huju (滬劇) | Shanghai |
| Huzhou opera | Huju (湖劇) | Huzhou (northern Zhejiang) |
| Shao opera | Shaoju (紹劇) | Shaoxing (northern Zhejiang) |
| Yao opera | Yaoju (姚劇) | Yuyao (northern Zhejiang) |
| Ningbo opera | Yongju (甬劇) | Ningbo (northern Zhejiang) |
| Wu opera | Wuju (婺劇) | Western Zhejiang |
| Xinggan opera | Xingganxi (醒感戲) | Yongkang (central Zhejiang) |
| Ou opera | Ouju (甌劇) | Wenzhou (southern Zhejiang) |
| Fujian and Taiwan | ||
| Min opera | Minju (閩劇) | Fujian, Taiwan (particularly Matsu Islands), Southeast Asia |
| Beilu opera | Beiluxi (北路戲) | Shouning County (northeastern Fujian) |
| Pingjiang opera | Pingjiangxi (平講戲) | Ningde (northeastern Fujian) |
| Sanjiao opera | Sanjiaoxi (三角戲) | Northern Fujian, western Zhejiang, northeastern Jiangxi |
| Meilin opera | Meilinxi (梅林戲) | Northwestern Fujian |
| Puxian opera | Puxianxi (莆仙戲) | Putian (coastal central Fujian) |
| Liyuan opera | Liyuanxi (梨園戲) | Quanzhou (southern Fujian), Taiwan, Southeast Asia |
| Gaojia opera | Gaojiaxi (高甲戲) | Quanzhou (southern Fujian), Taiwan, Southeast Asia |
| Dacheng opera | Dachengxi (打城戲) | Quanzhou (southern Fujian) |
| Taiwanese opera | Gezaixi (歌仔戲) | Taiwan, southern Fujian, Southeast Asia |
| Hubei, Hunan, and Jiangxi | ||
| Flower-drum opera | Huaguxi (花鼓戲) | Hubei, Hunan, Anhui, southeastern Henan |
| Han opera | Hanju (漢劇) | Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Taiwan |
| Chu opera | Chuju (楚劇) | Eastern Hubei |
| Jinghe opera | Jinghexi (荊河戲) | Southern Hubei, northern Hunan |
| Baling opera | Balingxi (巴陵戲) | Yueyang (northeastern Hunan) |
| Jiangxi opera | Ganju (贛劇) | Jiangxi |
| Yaya opera | Yayaxi (丫丫戲) | Yongxiu County (northern Jiangxi) |
| Meng opera | Mengxi (孟戲) | Guangchang County (eastern central Jiangxi) |
| Donghe opera | Donghexi (東河戲) | Ganzhou (southern Jiangxi) |
| Tea-picking opera | Caichaxi (採茶戲) | Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangxi, Hubei, Guangdong, Taiwan |
| Southwest China | ||
| Sichuan opera | Chuanju (川劇) | Sichuan, Chongqing |
| Yang opera | Yangxi (陽戲) | Northwestern Hunan, eastern Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou |
| Deng opera | Dengxi (燈戲) | Northeastern Sichuan, Chongqing, southwestern Hubei |
| Huadeng opera | Huadengxi (花燈戲) | Guizhou, Yunnan |
| Guizhou opera | Qianju (黔劇) | Guizhou |
| Yunnan opera | Dianju (滇劇) | Yunnan |
| Guansuo opera | Guansuoxi (關索戲) | Chengjiang County (central Yunnan) |
| South China | ||
| Cantonese opera | Yueju (粵劇) | Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macau, southern Guangxi, North America, Southeast Asia |
| Teochew opera | Chaoju (潮劇) | Eastern Guangdong, southernmost Fujian, Hong Kong, Southeast Asia |
| Zhengzi opera | Zhengzixi (正字戲) | Lufeng (eastern Guangdong) |
| Hakka opera | Hanju (漢劇) | Eastern Guangdong |
| Leizhou opera | Leiju (雷劇) | Leizhou Peninsula (southwestern Guangdong) |
| Hainan opera | Qiongju (瓊劇) | Hainan, Singapore |
| Zhai opera | Zhaixi (齋戲) | Haikou (northern Hainan) |
| Caidiao | Caidiao (彩調) | Guangxi |
| Guangxi opera | Guiju (桂劇) | Northern Guangxi |
| Nanning opera | Yongju (邕劇) | Nanning (southern Guangxi) |
Gallery[edit]
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A female opera performer
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The mask of Chinese opera.
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A man is painting Chinese opera makeup.
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Traditional Chinese Theater
-
-
Classic Chinese opera look
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Wing Luke Museum — Ping Chow’s Chinese opera garment
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Chinese opera costumes — Hong Kong Museum of History
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-
Chinese drama In last century.
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Romance of the Western Chamber Shaoxing opera
-
-
Battle of Changban Peking Opera
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Havoc in Heaven Peking Opera
-
Kunqu Mudanting Scene
-
Kunqu
In popular culture[edit]
An update in January 2022 for the game Genshin Impact includes a story quest that features a musical number from the character Yun Jin that is in the style of Chinese opera, which went viral as it was the first time many people around the world have heard Chinese opera. Even Yang Yang, the Chinese voice of Yun Jin, was suprised about it.
See also[edit]
- Chinese culture
- Chinese art
- C-pop
- Chinese drama
- Music of China
- Pear Garden
- Qu (poetry)
- Yuan poetry
- Zaju
- Revolutionary opera
- Chinese contemporary classical opera
Notes[edit]
- ^ Fan, Xing (2018). «Visual Communication through Design». Staging Revolution: Artistry and Aesthetics in Model Beijing Opera during the Cultural Revolution. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 196–217. doi:10.5790/hongkong/9789888455812.003.0009. ISBN 978-988-8455-81-2. JSTOR j.ctt22p7jf7.14.
- ^ Pang, Cecilia J. (2005). «(Re)cycling Culture: Chinese Opera in the United States». Comparative Drama. 39 (3/4): 361–396. doi:10.1353/cdr.2005.0015. JSTOR 41154288.
- ^ Wichmann, Elizabeth (1990). «Tradition and Innovation in Contemporary Beijing Opera Performance». TDR. 34 (1): 146–178. doi:10.2307/1146013. JSTOR 1146013.
- ^ a b Wang Kefen (1985). The History of Chinese Dance. China Books & Periodicals. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8351-1186-7.
- ^ Mackerras, Colin (Spring 1994). «Peking Opera before the Twentieth Century». Comparative Drama. 28 (1): 19–42. doi:10.1353/cdr.1994.0001. JSTOR 41153679.
- ^ Siu, Wang-Ngai; Lovrick, Peter (1997). Chinese Opera: Images and Stories. UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-0592-7.
- ^ Ma, Haili (2012). «Yueju – The Formation of a Legitimate Culture in Contemporary Shanghai». Culture Unbound: Journal of Current Cultural Research. 4: 213–227. doi:10.3384/cu.2000.1525.124213.
- ^ Iovene, Paola (2010). «Chinese Operas on Stage and Screen: A Short Introduction». The Opera Quarterly. 26 (2–3): 181–199. doi:10.1093/oq/kbq028. S2CID 191471378.
- ^ «将优秀戏曲纳入»国家典藏»«. Guangming Daily (in Chinese). May 9, 2017.
- ^ a b Tan Ye (2008). Historical Dictionary of Chinese Theater. Scarecrow Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0810855144.
- ^ «唐代參軍戲». 中國文化研究院.
- ^ «Sichuan Opera». Archived from the original on February 24, 2007.
- ^ «The Tang Dynasty (618–907)». Asian Traditional Theatre and Dance. Archived from the original on August 23, 2014. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
- ^ Laurence Picken, ed. (1985). Music from the Tang Court: Volume 5. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-0521347761.
- ^ a b c Faye Chunfang Fei, ed. (2002). Chinese Theories of Theater and Performance from Confucius to the Present. University of Michigan Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-0472089239.
- ^ Tan Ye (2008). Historical Dictionary of Chinese Theater. Scarecrow Press. p. 336. ISBN 9781461659211.
- ^ «Theatre». China Culture Information Net. Archived from the original on December 25, 2013.
- ^ «The Early History of Chinese Theatre». Asian Traditional Theatre and Dance. Archived from the original on October 21, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
- ^ Jin Fu (2012). Chinese Theatre (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0521186667.
- ^ Tan Ye (2008). Historical Dictionary of Chinese Theater. Scarecrow Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0810855144.
- ^ «Chinese Opera». onlinechinatours.com. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ Rossabi, 162.
- ^ Faye Chunfang Fei, ed. (2002). Chinese Theories of Theater and Performance from Confucius to the Present. University of Michigan Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0472089239.
- ^ Jin Fu (2012). Chinese Theatre (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 447. ISBN 978-0521186667.
- ^ «陶庵夢憶/卷02 《朱雲崍女戲》».
- ^ «川 剧styles». 中国剧种大观 CCNT. Archived from the original on April 30, 2001.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Hsu, Dolores Menstell (1964). «Musical Elements of Chinese Opera». The Musical Quarterly. 50 (4): 439–451. doi:10.1093/mq/L.4.439. JSTOR 740955.
- ^ a b Liang, David Ming-Yüeh (1980). «The Artistic Symbolism of the Painted Faces in Chinese Opera: An Introduction». The World of Music. 22 (1): 72–88. JSTOR 43560653.
References[edit]
- Rossabi, Morris (1988). Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05913-1.
Further reading[edit]
- Shih, Chung-wen (1976). The Golden Age of Chinese Drama: Yüan Tsa-chu. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06270-6.
- Riley, Jo (1997). Chinese Theatre and the Actor in Performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57090-5.
External links[edit]
- «Traveling with the Jinju», a Deutsche Welle documentary depicting a 21st-century touring Jinju (晋剧) Shanxi Opera troupe
Since the time of the Tang Dynasty’s Emperor Xuanzong from 712 to 755—who created the first national opera troupe called the «Pear Garden»—Chinese opera has been one of the most popular forms of entertainment in the country, but it actually started nearly a millennium before in the Yellow River Valley during the Qin Dynasty.
Now, more than a millennium after Xuanzong’s death, it is enjoyed by political leaders and commoners alike in many fascinating and innovative ways, and Chinese opera performers are still referred to as «Disciples of the Pear Garden,» continuing to perform an astonishing 368 different forms of Chinese opera.
Early Development
Many of the features that characterize modern Chinese opera developed in northern China, particularly in the Shanxi and Gansu Provinces, including the use of certain set characters like Sheng (the man), Dan (the woman), Hua (the painted face) and Chou (the clown). In Yuan Dynasty times—from 1279 to 1368—opera performers began to use the vernacular language of the common people rather than Classical Chinese.
During the Ming Dynasty—from 1368 to 1644—and the Qing Dynasty—from 1644 to 1911—the northern traditional singing and drama style from Shanxi was combined with melodies from a southern form of Chinese opera called «Kunqu.» This form was created in the Wu region, along the Yangtze River. Kunqu Opera revolves around the Kunshan melody, created in the coastal city of Kunshan.
Many of the most famous operas that are still performed today are from the Kunqu repertoire, including «The Peony Pavilion,» «The Peach Blossom Fan,» and adaptations of the older «Romance of the Three Kingdoms» and «Journey to the West.» However, the stories have been rendered into various local dialects, including Mandarin for audiences in Beijing and other northern cities. The acting and singing techniques, as well as costumes and makeup conventions, also owe much to the northern Qinqiang or Shanxi tradition.
Hundred Flowers Campaign
This rich operatic heritage was almost lost during China’s dark days in the mid-twentieth century. The Communist regime of the People’s Republic of China—from 1949 to present—initially encouraged the production and performance of operas old and new. During the «Hundred Flowers Campaign» in 1956 and ’57—in which the authorities under Mao encouraged intellectualism, the arts and even criticism of the government—Chinese opera blossomed anew.
However, the Hundred Flowers Campaign may have been a trap. Beginning in July of 1957, the intellectuals and artists who had put themselves forward during Hundred Flowers period were purged. By December of that same year, a stunning 300,000 people had been labeled «rightists» and were subjected to punishments from informal criticism to internment in labor camps or even execution.
This was a preview of the horrors of the Cultural Revolution of 1966 through 1976, which would imperil the very existence of Chinese opera and other traditional arts.
Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution was the regime’s attempt to destroy «old ways of thinking» by outlawing such traditions as fortune telling, paper-making, traditional Chinese dress and the study of classic literature and arts. An attack on one Beijing opera piece and its composer signaled the start of the Cultural Revolution.
In 1960, Mao’s government had commissioned Professor Wu Han to write an opera about Hai Rui, a minister of the Ming Dynasty who was fired for criticizing the Emperor to his face. Audiences saw the play as a critique of the Emperor—and thus Mao—rather than of Hai Rui representing disgraced Minister of Defense Peng Dehuai. In reaction, Mao performed an about-face in 1965, publishing harsh criticism of the opera and of composer Wu Han, who was eventually fired. This was the opening salvo of the Cultural Revolution.
For the next decade, opera troupes were disbanded, other composers and scriptwriters were purged and performances were banned. Until the fall of the «Gang of Four» in 1976, only eight «model operas» were allowed. These model operas were personally vetted by Madame Jiang Qing and were entirely politically innocuous. In essence, Chinese opera was dead.
Modern Chinese Opera
After 1976, Beijing opera and the other forms were revived, and once more placed within the national repertoire. Older performers who had survived the purges were allowed to pass on their knowledge to new students again. Traditional operas have been freely performed since 1976, though some newer works have been censored and new composers criticized as the political winds have shifted over the intervening decades.
Chinese opera makeup is particularly fascinating and rich in meaning. A character with mostly red makeup or a red mask is brave and loyal. Black symbolizes boldness and impartiality. Yellow denotes ambition, while pink stands for sophistication and cool-headedness. Characters with primarily blue faces are fierce and far-seeing, while green faces show wild and impulsive behaviors. Those with white faces are treacherous and cunning—the villains of the show. Finally, an actor with only a small section of makeup in the center of the face, connecting the eyes and nose, is a clown. This is called «xiaohualian,» or the » little painted face.»
Today, more than thirty forms of Chinese opera continue to be performed regularly throughout the country. Some of the most prominent of which are the Peking opera of Beijing, Huju opera of Shanghai, the Qinqiang of Shanxi, and Cantonese opera.
Beijing (Peking) Opera
The dramatic art form known as Beijing opera—or Peking opera—has been a staple of Chinese entertainment for more than two centuries. It was founded in 1790 when the «Four Great Anhui Troupes» went to Beijing to perform for the Imperial Court.
Some 40 years later, well-known opera troupes from Hubei joined the Anhui performers, melding their regional styles. Both the Hubei and Anhui opera troupes used two primary melodies adapted from the Shanxi musical tradition: «Xipi» and «Erhuang.» From this amalgam of local styles, the new Peking or Beijing opera developed. Today, Beijing Opera is considered China’s national art form.
Beijing Opera is famous for convoluted plots, vivid makeup, beautiful costumes and sets and the unique vocal style used by performers. Many of the 1,000 plots—perhaps not surprisingly—revolve around political and military strife, rather than romance. The basic stories are often hundreds or even thousands of years old involving historic and even supernatural beings.
Many fans of Beijing Opera are worried about the fate of this art form. The traditional plays make reference to many facts of pre-Cultural Revolution life and history that are unfamiliar to young people. Furthermore, many of the stylized movements have particular meanings that can be lost on uninitiated audiences.
Most troubling of all, operas must now compete with films, TV shows, computer games, and the internet for attention. The Chinese government is using grants and contests to encourage young artists to participate in Beijing Opera.
Shanghai (Huju) Opera
Shanghai opera (Huju) originated at about the same time as Beijing opera, around 200 years ago. However, the Shanghai version of opera is based on local folk-songs of the Huangpu River region rather than deriving from Anhui and Shanxi. Huju is performed in the Shanghainese dialect of Wu Chinese, which is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin. In other words, a person from Beijing would not understand the lyrics of a Huju piece.
Due to the relatively recent nature of the stories and songs that make up Huju, the costumes and makeup are comparatively simple and modern. Shanghai opera performers wear costumes that resemble the street clothing of ordinary people from the pre-communist era. Their makeup is not much more elaborate than that worn by western stage actors, in stark contrast to the heavy and significant grease-paint used in the other Chinese Opera forms.
Huju had its heyday in the 1920s and 1930s. Many of the stories and songs of the Shanghai region show a definite western influence. This is not surprising, given that the major European powers maintained trading concessions and consular offices in the thriving port city, prior to World War II.
Like many of the other regional opera styles, Huju is in danger of disappearing forever. Few young actors take up the art form since there is much greater fame and fortune to be had in movies, TV, or even Beijing Opera. Unlike Beijing Opera, which is now considered a national art form, Shanghai Opera is performed in a local dialect and thus does not translate well to other provinces.
Nevertheless, the city of Shanghai has millions of residents, with tens of millions more in the near vicinity. If a concerted effort is made to introduce younger audiences to this interesting art form, Huju may survive to delight theater-goers for centuries to come.
Shanxi Opera (Qinqiang)
Most forms of Chinese opera owe their singing and acting styles, some of their melodies, and their plot-lines to the musically fertile Shanxi province, with its thousand-year-old Qinqiang or Luantan folk melodies. This ancient form of art first appeared in the Yellow River Valley during the Qin Dynasty from B.C. 221 to 206 and was popularized at the Imperial Court at modern-day Xian during the Tang Era, which spanned from 618 to 907 A.D.
The repertoire and symbolic movements continued to develop in Shanxi Province throughout the Yuan Era (1271-1368) and the Ming Era (1368-1644). During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), Shanxi Opera was introduced to the court at Beijing. The Imperial audiences so enjoyed Shanxi singing that the form was incorporated into Beijing Opera, which is now a national artistic style.
At one time, the repertoire of Qinqiang included over 10,000 operas; today, only about 4,700 of them are remembered. The arias in Qinqiang Opera are divided into two types: huan yin, or «joyous tune,» and ku yin, or «sorrowful tune.» Plots in Shanxi Opera often deal with fighting oppression, wars against the northern barbarians, and issues of loyalty. Some Shanxi Opera productions include special effects such as fire-breathing or acrobatic twirling, in addition to the standard operatic acting and singing.
Cantonese Opera
Cantonese Opera, based in southern China and overseas ethnic Chinese communities, is a very formalized operatic form that emphasizes gymnastic and martial arts skills. This form of Chinese Opera predominates in Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, Malaysia, and in Chinese-influenced areas in western countries.
Cantonese Opera was first performed during the reign of the Ming Dynasty Jiajing Emperor from 152 to 1567. Originally based on the older forms of Chinese Opera, Cantonese Opera began to add local folk melodies, Cantonese instrumentation, and eventually even Western popular tunes. In addition to traditional Chinese instruments such as the pipa, erhu, and percussion, modern Cantonese Opera productions may include such Western instruments as the violin, cello, or even saxophone.
Two different types of plays make up the Cantonese Opera repertoire—Mo, meaning «martial arts,» and Mun, or «intellectual»—wherein the melodies are entirely secondary to the lyrics. Mo performances are fast-paced, involving stories of warfare, bravery and betrayal. The actors often carry weapons as props, and the elaborate costumes may be as heavy as actual armor. Mun, on the other hand, tends to be a slower, more polite art form. The actors use their vocal tones, facial expressions, and long flowing «water sleeves» to express complex emotions. Most of the Mun stories are romances, morality tales, ghost stories, or famous Chinese classic tales or myths.
One notable feature of Cantonese Opera is the makeup. It is among the most elaborate makeup systems in all of Chinese Opera, with different shades of color and shapes, particularly on the forehead, indicating the mental state, trustworthiness, and physical health of the characters. For example, sickly characters have a thin red line drawn between the eyebrows, while comic or clownish characters have a large white spot on the bridge of the nose. Some Cantonese Operas also involve actors in «open face» makeup, which is so intricate and complicated that it resembles a painted mask more than a living face.
Today, Hong Kong is at the center of efforts to keep Cantonese Opera alive and thriving. The Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts offers two-year degrees in Cantonese Opera performance, and the Arts Development Council sponsors opera classes for the city’s children. Through such concerted effort, this unique and intricate form of Chinese Opera may continue to find an audience for decades to come.
Удивительные выступления
Reading
Упражнение 1, с. 32
1. Look at the pictures and read the title and the first and last sentences of each paragraph of Iris’ blog entry. What do you think Chinese opera is like? — Посмотрите на фотографии и прочитайте название, а также первое и последнее предложения каждого абзаца записи в блоге Айрис. Как вы думаете, на что похожа китайская опера?
I think Chinese opera involves singing and dancing with bright costumes and incredible make-up.
Я думаю, что китайская опера включает в себя пение и танцы с яркими костюмами и невероятным макияжем.
Check these words
ancient times [ˈeɪnʃənt taɪmz] древние времена
hanging [ˈhæŋɪŋ] висящий
lantern [ˈlæntən] фонарь
grand [ɡrænd] величественный
start out [stɑːt aʊt] начинать(ся)
fiery [ˈfaɪəri] огненно-красный
ribbon [ˈrɪbən] лента
kaleidoscope [kəˈlaɪdəskəʊp] калейдоскоп
sharp [ʃɑːp] острый
high-pitched [ˌhaɪˈpɪtʃt] пронзительный
crowd [kraʊd] толпа
gather [ˈɡæðə] собираться
fall in love with [fɔːl ɪn lʌv wɪð] влюбиться в
acrobatics [ˌækrəˈbætɪks] акробатика
emotion [ɪˈməʊʃn] эмоция
gallop [ˈɡæləp] скакать галопом
whip [wɪp] кнут
somersault [ˈsʌməsɔːlt] сальто
reveal [rɪˈviːl] открывать
loyalty [ˈlɔɪəlti] преданность
bravery [ˈbreɪvəri] смелость
warrior [ˈwɒriə] воин
wild [waɪld] дикий
cruelty [ˈkruːəlti] жестокость
Chinese opera
If you want to watch a music performance that combines song, dance, and striking design, just forget about the latest pop video. Take a look at a truly original style of musical performance: Chinese opera. Last month I was on a trip in Shanghai. I was staying with my Chinese friend Mai-Li. She insted that we go to the Chinese opera and I have admit the experience was amazing from beginning to end.
Opera has a long history in China. In ancient times, actors performed the operas on the streets on temporary stages with only hanging lanterns for lighting. It’s funny to think that such grand art started out like that!
We arrived at the theatre just before the lights went down. As the curtain rose, the actors came on stage in their beautiful costumes; the fiery reds and ribbons of gold and silver were like a kaleidoscope of colour! The costumes go all the way back to the street show days, when the actors used to wear bright colours to stand out in the dark.
The singing was quite strange — very sharp and high-pitched. Just like the costumes, the singing style was really ancient. The street performers used to sing that way to that their voices could carry over the crowds who gathered to watch.
The opera we saw was ‘Lady White Snake’; a classic Chinese folk tale. A white snake changes into a beautiful girl, and then falls in love with a human. But the actors didn’t only tell the story through song; the dancing and acrobatics were fantastic, too. The actors used not only their faces but also their whole bodies to act out the story and shoow their emotions. These actors train very hard at opera schools for years about the age of 7 or 8. There weren’t a lot of stage props or scenery because the actors yse a lot of symbols to help tell the story. An actor gallop with a whip, for example, means they are riding a horse. Doing somersaults from a table or a pile of chairs means they are running down a mountain.
The actors’ make-up was incredible. Each colour has a special meaning and reveals something about their character; red means loyalty and bravery, black shows a warrior or a wild character, blue means cruelty and gold and silver means mystery. At the finale, it was breathtaking to see them all on stage together in their bright costumes and make-up. I didn’t think that opera was for me, but I can’t believe how much I enjoyed it. You must all see a Chinese opera one day!
Китайская опера
Если вы хотите посмотреть музыкальное представление, в котором сочетаются песни, танцы и яркий дизайн, просто забудьте о последнем поп-видео. Взгляните на поистине оригинальный стиль музыкального исполнения: китайская опера. В прошлом месяце я был в поездке в Шанхае. Я гостилa у своей китайской подруги Май-Ли. Она сказала, что мы идём в китайскую оперу, и я признаю, что опыт был потрясающим от начала до конца.
Опера имеет долгую историю в Китае. В древние времена актёры исполняли оперы на улицах на временных сценах, освещая их только висячими фонарями. Забавно думать, что такое великое искусство начиналось именно так!
Мы прибыли в театр как раз перед тем, как погас свет. Когда занавес поднялся, на сцену вышли актёры в своих прекрасных костюмах; огненно-красные и серебряные ленты были похожи на калейдоскоп цветов! Костюмы восходят к временам уличных шоу, когда актёры носили яркие цвета, чтобы выделяться в темноте.
Пение было довольно странным — очень резким и высоким. Как и костюмы, стиль пения был действительно древним. Уличные артисты пели так, чтобы их голоса доносились до толпы, собравшейся посмотреть.
Опера, которую мы видели, была «Леди белая змея», классическая китайская народная сказка. Белая змея превращается в красивую девушку, а затем влюбляется в человека. Но актёры не только рассказывали историю через песни; танцы и акробатика тоже были фантастическими. Актёры использовали не только свои лица, но и всё своё тело, чтобы разыграть историю и выразить свои эмоции. Эти актёры очень усердно тренируются в оперных школах в течение многих лет в возрасте 7 или 8 лет. Там не было много сценического реквизита или декораций, потому что актёры использовали много символов, чтобы помочь рассказать историю. Например, актёрский галоп с хлыстом означает, что они едут на лошади. Делать сальто со стола или груды стульев означает, что они бегут вниз с горы.
Грим актёров был невероятным. Каждый цвет имеет особое значение и раскрывает что-то об их характере; красный означает верность и храбрость, чёрный показывает воина или дикого персонажа, синий означает жестокость, а золото и серебро означают тайну. В финале у меня захватило дух, когда я увидела их всех вместе на сцене в ярких костюмах и гриме. Я не думала, что эта опера для меня, но не могу поверить, как сильно она мне понравилась. Вы все должны когда-нибудь увидеть китайскую оперу!
Study skills
Учебные навыки
Predicting content
Прогнозирование содержания
The title, photograps and the first and the last sentence in each paragraph help us predict the content of a text.
Название, фотографии и первое и последнее предложение в каждом абзаце помогают нам предсказать содержание текста.
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