Рассказ о скелете человека на английском

«Bone structure» redirects here. For skeletal systems of other animals, see Skeleton. For for the scientific study of bones, see Osteology.

Human skeleton
A human skeleton on exhibit at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Details
Identifiers
Greek	σκελετός
TA98	A02.0.00.000
Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata]

The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together.^[1] The bone mass in the skeleton makes up about 14% of the total body weight (ca. 10–11 kg for an average person) and reaches maximum mass between the ages of 25 and 30.^[2] The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.

The human skeleton performs six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation.

The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population.^{[citation needed]} The human female pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate childbirth.^[3] Unlike most primates, human males do not have penile bones.^[4]

Divisions

Axial

The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).

The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.

Appendicular

The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.

Functions

The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.

Support

The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.

Movement

The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.^[5][6][7]

Protection

The skeleton helps to protect many vital internal organs from being damaged.

• The skull protects the brain
• The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
• The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.

Blood cell production

The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.^[8]

Storage

The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.

Endocrine regulation

Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.^[9]

Sex differences

Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population.^{[citation needed]} It is not known whether or to what extent those differences are genetic or environmental.

Skull

A variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the median nuchal line, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and the chin.^[10]

Dentition

Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes.

Long bones

Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.

Pelvis

The human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.^[11]

Women’s pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the pelvis to allow for child birth. The sacrum in the women’s pelvis is curved inwards to allow the child to have a «funnel» to assist in the child’s pathway from the uterus to the birth canal.

Clinical significance

There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced «C» or «S» shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.

Arthritis

Arthritis is a disorder of the joints. It involves inflammation of one or more joints. When affected by arthritis, the joint or joints affected may be painful to move, may move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis, can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures.^[12] Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, with the term «established osteoporosis» including the presence of a fragility fracture.^[13] Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called «postmenopausal osteoporosis», but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids.^[12] Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.^[12] For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture.^[12]

Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and osteoporosis may be one factor considered when commencing Hormone replacement therapy.^[12]

History

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2014)

India

Suśruta-saṃhitā, composed between 6th century BCE and 5th century CE speaks of 360 bones. Books on Salya-Shastra (surgical science) know of only 300. The text then lists the total of 300 as follows: 120 in the extremities (e.g. hands, legs), 117 in the pelvic area, sides, back, abdomen and breast, and 63 in the neck and upwards.^[14] The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified.^[15] The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought, with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya-Caraka tradition.^[15] The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count, and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone (both count cartilages as bones, unlike current medical practice).^[16]

Hellenistic world

The study of bones in ancient Greece started under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses in Alexandria, is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria,^[17] as well as his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals.^[18] According to Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices were taboo and thus completely banned.^[19] The practice of holy autopsy, such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the claim.^[20] Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system seems to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly performed surgery, there may be some distance between medical theory and actual understanding.

Renaissance

Leonardo da Vinci made studies of the skeleton, albeit unpublished in his time.^[21] Many artists, Antonio del Pollaiuolo being the first, performed dissections for better understanding of the body, although they concentrated mostly on the muscles.^[22] Vesalius, regarded as the founder of modern anatomy, authored the book De humani corporis fabrica, which contained many illustrations of the skeleton and other body parts, correcting some theories dating from Galen, such as the lower jaw being a single bone instead of two.^[23] Various other figures like Alessandro Achillini also contributed to the further understanding of the skeleton.

18th century

As early as 1797, the death goddess or folk saint known as Santa Muerte has been represented as a skeleton.^[24][25]

See also

• List of bones of the human skeleton
• Distraction osteogenesis

References

Bibliography

• Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.

1. Прочитайте
   и
   переведите
   текст.

The skeleton.

The
skeleton is composed of bones. In the adult the skeleton has over 200
bones.

The bones
of the skull consist of cranial and facial parts. ¹ There are 26
bones in the skull.

The bones
of the trunk are the spinal column or the spine and the chest (ribs
and the breastbone). The spine consists of the cervical, thoracic,
lumbar and sacral vertebrae and the coccyx.

The
vertebra is a small bone, which is formed by the body and the arches.
² All the vertebrae compose the spinal column or the spine. There
are 32 or 34 vertebrae in the spine of the adult. In the spinal
column there are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae,
five lumber, five sacral vertebrae and from one to five vertebrae
which form the coccyx. The cervical part of the spine is formed by
seven cervical vertebrae. Twelve thoracic vertebrae have large
bodies. The lumbar vertebrae are the largest vertebrae in the spinal
column. They have oval bodies.

The chest
(thorax) is composed of 12 thoracic vertebrae, the breastbone and 12
pairs of ribs. The breastbone is a long bone in the middle of the
chest. It is composed of three main parts. The basic part of the
chest is formed by the ribs. On each side of the chest seven ribs are
connected with the breastbone by cartilages. The cartilages of three
other ribs are connected with each other and with the seventh rib.
But the cartilages of these ribs are not connected with the
breastbone. The eleventh and the twelfth ribs are not connected with
the breastbone either. They are not connected with other ribs, they
are free. Each rib is composed of a head, neck and body.

The lower
extremity consists of the thigh, leg and foot. It is connected with
the trunk by the pelvis. The upper extremity is formed by the arm,
forearm and hand. It is connected with the trunk by the shoulder
girdle.

The bones
of the skeleton are connected together by the joints or by the
cartilages and ligaments. The bones consist of organic and inorganic
substance.

Notes:

1. состоят
   из мозгового и лицевого отделов;

2. каждый
   позвонок имеет две дуги не меньше

2. Выразите свое согласие или несогласие со следующими высказываниями.

1. Cranial
and facial bones compose the skull.

2. In the
adult the skeleton has about 200 bones.

3. There
are twenty six bones in the skull.

4. The
chest consists of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae
and the coccyx.

5. All the
vertebrae compose the spinal column or the spine.

6. In the
spinal column there are seventeen cervical vertebrae, twenty thoracic
vertebrae, five lumber, three sacral vertebrae and from one to five
vertebrae which form the coccyx.

7. Twelve
thoracic vertebrae have small bodies.

8. The
lumbar vertebrae are the largest vertebrae in the spinal column.

9. The
thorax is composed of twenty thoracic vertebrae, the breastbone and
twenty pairs of ribs.

10. The
breastbone is a short bone in the middle of the chest.

11. The
basic part of the chest is formed by the ribs.

12. On each
side of the chest seven ribs are connected with the breastbone by
cartilages.

13. The
cartilages of three other ribs are connected with each other and with
the breastbone.

14. The
eleventh and the twelfth ribs are not connected with other ribs, they
are free.

15. A rib
is composed of a head, neck and body.

16. The
lower extremity consists of the thigh, leg and foot.

17. The
upper extremity is formed by the arm, forearm and hand.

18. Some
bones of the skeleton are connected by the joints.

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The Skeleton

The skeleton is composed of bones. In the adult the skeleton has over 200 bones.

The bones of the skull consist of cranial and facial parts. There are 28 bones of the skull.

The bones of the trunk are the spinal column or the spine and the chest (ribs and the breastbone). The spine consists of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae and the coccyx.

The vertebra is a small bone, which is formed by the body and the arches. All the vertebrae compose the spinal column or the spine. There are 32 or 34 vertebrae in the spine of the adult. In the spinal column there are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar, five sacral vertebrae and from one to five vertebrae which form the coccyx. The cervical part of the spine is formed by seven cervical vertebrae. Twelve thoracic vertebrae have large bodies. The lumbar vertebrae are the largest vertebrae in the spinal column. They have oval bodies.

The chest (thorax) is composed of the 12 thoracic vertebrae, the breastbone and 12 pairs of ribs. The breastbone is a long bone in the middle of the chest. It is composed of three main parts. The basic part of the chest is formed by the ribs. On each side of the chest seven ribs are connected with the breastbone by cartilages. The cartilages of three other ribs are connected with each other and with the seventh rib. But the cartilages of these ribs are not connected with the breastbone. The eleventh and the twelfth ribs are not connected with the breastbone either. They are not connected with other ribs, they are free. Each rib is composed of a head, neck and body.

The lower extremity consists of the thigh, leg and foot. It is connected with the trunk by the pelvis. The upper extremity is formed by the arm, forearm and the hand. It is connected with the trunk by the shoulder girdle.

The bones of the skeleton are connected together by the joints or by the cartilages and ligaments. The bones consist of organic and inorganic substance.

Скелет

Скелет состоит из костей. У взрослого скелет имеет более 200 костей.

Кости черепа состоят из мозговой и лицевой частей. В черепе 28 костей.

Костями туловища являются позвоночный столб или позвоночник и грудная клетка (ребра и грудина). Позвоночник состоит из шейного, грудного, поясничного и крестцовых позвонков и копчика.

Позвонок — небольшая кость, образованная телом и дугами. Все позвонки составляют позвоночный столб или позвоночник. В позвоночнике взрослого человека имеется 32 или 34 позвонка. В позвоночном столбе есть семь шейных позвонков, двенадцать грудных позвонков, пять поясничных, пять крестцовых позвонков и от одного до пяти позвонков, которые образуют копчик. Шейная часть позвоночника образована семью шейными позвонками. Двенадцать грудных позвонков имеют большие тела. Поясничные позвонки являются наибольшими позвонками в позвоночном столбе. У них овальные тела.

Грудная клетка состоит из 12 грудных позвонков, грудины и 12 пар ребер. Грудина — длинная кость в середине грудной клетки. Она состоит из трех основных частей. Основная часть грудной клетки образована ребрами. С каждой стороны грудной клетки семь ребер связаны с грудиной хрящами. Хрящи трех других ребер связаны друг с другом и с седьмым ребром. Но хрящи этих ребер не связаны с грудиной. Одиннадцатый и двенадцатый ребра тоже не связаны с грудиной. Они не связаны с другими ребрами, они свободные. Каждое ребро состоит из головки, шеи и тела.

Нижние конечности состоят из бедра, голени и стопы. Это связано с туловищем у таза. Верхние конечности образованы плечом, предплечьем и рукой. Это связано с туловищем у плечевого пояса.

Кости скелета соединены вместе суставами или хрящами и связками. Кости состоят из органического и неорганического вещества.

The bones of our body make up a skeleton. The skeleton forms about 18% of the weight of the human body.

The skeleton of the trunk mainly consists of spinal column made of a number of bony segments called vertebrae to which the head, the thoracic cavity and the pelvic bones are connected. The spinal column consists of 26 spinal column bones.

The human vertebrae are divided into differentiated groups. The seven most superior of them are the vertebrae called the cervical vertebrae. The first cervical vertebra is the atlas. The second vertebra is called the axis.

Inferior to the cervical vertebrae are twelve thoracic vertebrae. There is one rib connected to each thoracic vertebrae, making 12 pairs of ribs. Most of the rib pairs come together ventrally and join a flat bone called the sternum.

The first pairs or ribs are short. All seven pairs join the sternum directly and are sometimes called the «true ribs». Pairs 8, 9, 10 are «fal-se ribs». The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are the «floating ribs».

Inferior to the thoracic vertebrae are five lumbar vertebrae. The lumbar vertebrae are the largest and the heaviest of the spinal column. Inferior to the lumbar vertebrae are five sacral vertebrae forming a strong bone in adults. The most inferior group of vertebrae are four small vertebrae forming together the соссух.

The vertebral column is not made up of bone alone. It also has cartilages.

New words

skeleton – скелет

make up – составлять

weight – вес

trunk – туловище

mainly – главным образом

thoracic cavity – грудная впадина

axis – ось

spinal column – позвоночник

inferior – низший

rib – ребро

pair – пара

sacral – сакральный

соссух – копчик

floating – плавающий

forming – формирующий

cartilage – хрящ